Bendik Bygstad

• Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2021). Managing Digital Transformation with Sociotechnical Micro-Foundations: A Dynamic Capabilities Approach. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS).  ISSN 1530-1605.  s 6462- 6471
• Bygstad, Bendik & Dulsrud, Arne (2020). Digital Ecosystems as a Unit of Scientific Analysis. A Sociological Investigation. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS).  ISSN 1530-1605. . doi: 10.24251/HICSS.2020.698 Vis sammendrag

  The growth of digital ecosystems such as Google, Apple and Uber has led to radical changes in economic activity, work and consumption. It has also challenged established economic, social and organization theory, which has clear limitations in understanding these phenomena. The discourses on these topics are conducted in various arenas, which are not linked, and conceptualise digital ecosystems differently. What kind of theoretical object is this? The purpose of this study is to present an institutional and comparative analysis of the research on platforms and digital ecosystems. We identify four research streams; political, economic, technological and individual. We analyse each stream regarding the key insights, and identify the most important knowledge sources. Then we assess the relevance of classical and modern sociology for understanding digital ecosystems.

• Bygstad, Bendik; Iden, Jon & Ulfsten, Andreas (2020). Digital Business Strategies for Incumbent Firms. How a Scandinavian hotel chain competes with the internet giants. Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems.  ISSN 0905-0167.  32(2), s 77- 106 Vis sammendrag

  The rise of digital platform companies has shaken many business sectors and led to the emergence of new competition arenas, digital business ecosystems. Incumbent firms realize they need to change how they do business, and that conventional business strategies are no longer fit for competing in these new digital arenas. Our research questions are (i) how can incumbent service firms develop and leverage a digital business strategy, and (ii) how can hotels and hotel chains compete with online travel agencies (OTAs) in digital hospitality ecosystems? We chose a longitudinal case study to explore how a large Scandinavian hotel chain implemented a digital business strategy to compete with OTAs in a digital hospitality ecosystem. Our approach was to stay close to the practices and actual behaviours of the company and the individuals engaged in fulfilling the strategy. We contribute to theory and practice by proposing that (i) incumbent firms need two strategies, one for the digital ecosystem and one for the traditional competition arena, (ii) that the two strategies should be implemented ambidextrously but also integrated and (iii) that to succeed, it is essential to establish self-reinforcing interactions between the digital and the physical.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Øvrelid, Egil (2020). Architectural alignment of process innovation and digital infrastructure in a high-tech hospital. European Journal of Information Systems.  ISSN 0960-085X.  s 1- 18 . doi: 10.1080/0960085X.2020.1728201
• Osmundsen, Karen & Bygstad, Bendik (2020). Patterns of Interaction: Making Sense of Digitalization in Incumbent Firms. SCIS & ISIS.  ISSN 1880-3741.
• Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Kan en nordisk hotellkjede konkurrere mot internettgigantene? :. Magma - Tidsskrift for økonomi og ledelse.  ISSN 1500-0788.  22(3), s 14- 17
• Bygstad, Bendik; Lanestedt, Gjermund & Iden, Jon (2019). Some elements to a theory of digital management. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  27(1) Fulltekst i vitenarkiv.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Øvrelid, Egil; Lie, Thomas & Bergquist, Magnus (2019). Developing and Organizing an Analytics Capability for Patient Flow in a General Hospital. Information Systems Frontiers.  ISSN 1387-3326.  s 1- 12 . doi: 10.1007/s10796-019-09920-2
• Danilova, Kjersti Berg; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Digitaldirektørens bidrag til digital transformasjon gjennom håndtering av usikkerhet i organisasjonen. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  27(1) Vis sammendrag

  Digital transformasjon er en omfattende endringsprosess, som kan innebære vesentlig usikkerhet i organisasjonen. I denne artikkelen utforsker vi hvordan digitaldirektører bidrar til digital transformasjon ved håndtering av usikkerhet som kan vanskeliggjøre gjennomføring av transformasjonen. Gjennom dybdeintervjuer med 20 digitaldirektører studerer vi hvordan digitaldirektørene oppfatter ulike former for usikkerhet relatert til digital transformasjon, og hvordan de søker å håndtere usikkerheten. Vi finner at digitaldirektørene først og fremst anvender en diskursiv tilnærming, hvor de søker å skape mening rundt nødvendige endringer.

• Danilova, Kjersti Berg; Rydland, Monica; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Digitaldirektøren som endringsagent. Magma - Tidsskrift for økonomi og ledelse.  ISSN 1500-0788.  2, s 22- 28
• Gebre-Mariam, Mikael & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Digitalization mechanisms of health management information systems in developing countries. Information and organization.  ISSN 1471-7727.  29(1), s 1- 22 . doi: 10.1016/j.infoandorg.2018.12.002
• Gebre-Mariam, Mikael & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). What can enterprise architecture do for healthcare? A framework of antecedents and benefits. Electronic Government, an International Journal.  ISSN 1740-7494.  15(2), s 213- 239 . doi: 10.1504/EG.2019.098672
• Hylving, Lena Ulrika & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Nuanced Responses to Enterprise Architecture Management: Loyalty, Voice, and Exit. Journal of Management Information Systems.  ISSN 0742-1222.  36(1), s 14- 36 . doi: 10.1080/07421222.2018.1550549 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv.
• Jonasdottir, Hrafnhildur & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). “Whoever is Educated by Anxiety is Educated by Possibility” A Study of Creativity in Game Development. THE COMPUTER GAMES JOURNAL.  ISSN 2052-773X.  s 1- 21 . doi: 10.1007/s40869-019-00082-4
• Osmundsen, Karen; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Organizing Robotic Process Automation: Balancing Loose and Tight Coupling. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS).  ISSN 1530-1605.  52, s 6918- 6926 . doi: 10.24251/hicss.2019.829
• Øvrelid, Egil & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). The role of discourse in transforming digital infrastructures. Journal of Information Technology.  ISSN 0268-3962.  34(3), s 221- 242 . doi: 10.1177/0268396219831994
• Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2018). The social interaction of developers and IT operations staff in software development projects. International Journal of Project Management.  ISSN 0263-7863.  36(3), s 485- 497 . doi: 10.1016/j.ijproman.2017.12.001
• Osmundsen, Karen; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2018). Hva er digitalisering, digital innovasjon og digital transformasjon? En litteraturstudie. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  26(1)
• Torp-Holte, Martin; Hjulstad, Kristina Marcelius; Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2018). "Strategizing" i en smart og tilkoblet verden : en kvalitativ studie av hvordan strategi praktiseres i norske IOT-selskaper. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  26(1)
• Bygstad, Bendik (2017). Generative innovation: a comparison of lightweight and heavyweight IT. Journal of Information Technology.  ISSN 0268-3962.  32(2), s 180- 193 . doi: 10.1057/jit.2016.15 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Aanby, Hans-Petter & Iden, Jon (2017). Leading digital transformation: The Scandinavian way. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing.  ISSN 1865-1348.  294, s 1- 14 . doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-64695-4_1 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Hanseth, Ole; Siebenherz, Anette & Øvrelid, Egil (2017). Process Innovation Meets Digital Infrastructure in a High-Tech Hospital, In Isabel Ramos; Virpi Kristiina Tuunainen & Helmut Krcmar (ed.),  The 25th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS).  Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-989-207655-3.  Kap..  s 801 - 814 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv. Vis sammendrag

  Digitalisation is usually about process innovation with the use of IT, i.e. automating or informating organisational processes. However, redesigned processes are often misaligned with the underlying digital infrastructure. For instance, improving patient logistics with the help of IT is a key aim for current e-health initiatives, but has proven to be quite challenging in practice, and is sparsely dealt with in the literature. Our research question is, how can a process innovation initiative successfully interact with an underlying digital infrastructure? Our empirical evidence is an in-depth case study at a new high-tech hospital in Norway. Building on a proposed framework of interaction between process innovation and digital infrastructure, we identify and analyse two governance and two architectural mechanisms. Theoretically, we contribute to the digital infrastructure research by proposing a configuration for successful process innovation, in a complex e-health context. For practitioners, we show that lightweight IT can serve as a mediating technology in the configuration.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2017). A Governance Model for Managing Lightweight IT. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing.  ISSN 2194-5357.  569, s 384- 393 . doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-56535-4_39 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2017). Competing In Digital Infrastructures : How a Nordic Hotel Chain Competes With The Online Travel Agencies. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  25(1)
• Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2017). Styringsmodeller for digitalisering. Magma - Tidsskrift for økonomi og ledelse.  ISSN 1500-0788.  17(06), s 25- 32 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Lanestedt, Gjermund (2017). Expectations and realities in welfare technologies: A comparative study of Japan and Norway. Transforming Government: People, Process and Policy.  ISSN 1750-6166.  11(2), s 286- 303 . doi: 10.1108/TG-09-2016-0057 Vis sammendrag

  Purpose – the paper aims to add knowledge on the status of the welfare technology field. Politicians in mature economies expect welfare technologies – especially digital technologies – to contribute to bridging the gap between an increasing number of elderly and a shrinking work force. Theoretically, the paper deals with welfare technologies in a digital infrastructure perspective. Design – a multi-level and comparative study was conducted, in order to (i) understand the interplay of high-level policies and implementation projects, and (ii) highlight key issues through comparative analysis of different national approaches. Japan and Norway were the chosen countries, because they are both in the forefront in the use of welfare technologies. Findings - findings reveal similarities between the two countries, which are echoed in many other countries: although government expectations are high, the field of welfare technology is still in its infancy, and only rather simple solutions (such as safety alarms) are widely used. Key differences in innovation strategies for welfare technology in the two countries are highlighted, where Japan seem to be aiming for a vertical integration through large corporations’ solutions, while Norway aims for a more open innovation arena, through standardization Value – from a practical point of view the two countries have something to learn from each other, but in particular, both countries are recommended – together with other similar countries - a more platform-oriented approach. Theoretically, it is shown that a successful implementation of welfare technologies should adopt a digital infrastructure approach, and exploit the generative mechanisms of this approach.

• Steinsund, Heidi; Stople, Annette; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2017). Lightweight It And The It Function : Experiences From Robotic Process Automation In a Norwegian Bank. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  25(1)
• Øvrelid, Egil; Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2017). DISCURSIVE FORMATIONS AND SHIFTING STRATEGIES IN E-HEALTH PROGRAMMES, In Isabel Ramos; Virpi Kristiina Tuunainen & Helmut Krcmar (ed.),  The 25th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS).  Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-989-207655-3.  Kapittel.  s 873 - 886
• Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2016). Governing e-Health Infrastructures: Dealing with Tensions, In  ICIS 2016 PROCEEDINGS : Thirty Seventh International Conference on Information Systems. Dublin 2016.  Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-0-9966831-3-5.  Proceedings of International Conference of Information Systems. Vis sammendrag

  In this paper we investigate tensions in large e-health infrastructure programs. Currently, there is a gap between the high expectations to e-health and the fragmented status of IT services. In response to this situation the health authorities in many countries has called for a strategy of central IT governance and enterprise architecture, but many large programs experience tensions. Our research question is, how can we understand and manage the tensions of large-scale programs in e-health? The empirical evidence is a multilevel study of a national e-health Norway initiative, at three levels; national, regional and project. We find that the governance-architecture approach is not effective in balancing the tensions of e-health infrastructures. Our proposed solution is to differentiate between stable and unstable elements of the infrastructure; the stable elements can, and should, be managed top-down, while the unstable elements should be subject to local innovation and decentralised governance.

• Bygstad, Bendik; Munkvold, Bjørn Erik & Volkoff, Olga (2016). Identifying generative mechanisms through affordances: a framework for critical realist data analysis. Journal of Information Technology.  ISSN 0268-3962.  31(1), s 83- 96 . doi: 10.1057/jit.2015.13 Vis sammendrag

  Critical realism has attracted increasing attention as an alternative to positivist and interpretive research for explaining contemporary phenomena. There are now several sources for information systems’ (IS) scholars providing guidance on conducting critical realist studies. However, the most challenging step of a critical realist data analysis, the identification of causal mechanisms, is still insufficiently described. Identifying mechanisms is challenging. Drawing on the concept of affordances as an analytical construct offers the researcher a tool to identify and analyse mechanisms. We present a step-wise framework for identifying structural components of a mechanism, how these components interact to produce an outcome and contextual influences on this outcome. We illustrate the application of the framework through an example of the identification of IS innovation mechanisms in a case study in the airline industry. In doing so, we argue that the approach offers a methodological tool for identifying generative mechanisms, helping the researcher in conducting a more precise data analysis in empirical research.

• Gizaw, Abyot Asalefew; Bygstad, Bendik & Nielsen, Petter (2016). Open generification. Information Systems Journal.  ISSN 1350-1917.  27(5), s 619- 642 . doi: 10.1111/isj.12112
• Munkvold, Bjørn Erik & Bygstad, Bendik (2016). The Land of Confusion – Clearing up some common misunderstandings of interpretive research. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  24(1) Fulltekst i vitenarkiv. Vis sammendrag

  Qualitative research approaches are now well established in information systems research, and are given equal weight as quantitative research in research methods courses in graduate programs. Similar, the heated paradigm debate seems to largely have cooled off, with interpretivist research now being accepted as an alternative to positivism and other paradigms. However, from the authors’ experience with teaching qualitative methods and reviewing qualitative research work, we see a growing tendency among both students and more experienced researchers to view qualitative and interpretive research as synonyms. We argue that this to some extent is due to a lack of precision in how the interpretivist paradigm is introduced in method textbooks and resources, where the rhetoric is sometimes conflated so as to indicate that all research focusing on the social and contextual aspects of technology use is by default interpretivist. On this background, our mission with this paper is to highlight the key characteristics of interpretive research that distinguish this approach from ‘any qualitative study’. In this, we discuss core concepts and procedures related to interpretive data collection and analysis, including validation and generalizability. Finally, we present a set of guiding questions forming a checklist for whether the qualitative study conducted would qualify as interpretive research or not.

• Øvrelid, Egil & Bygstad, Bendik (2016). Extending e-health infrastructures with lightweight IT. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing.  ISSN 1865-1348.  259, s 43- 56 . doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-43597-8_4
• Øvrelid, Egil; Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2016). Establishing spaces of interplay: the role of discourse in the growth of information infrastructures. IADIS International Journal on Computer Science and Information System.  ISSN 1646-3692.  11(2), s 31- 45
• Bygstad, Bendik & D'Silva, Francis (2015). Government as a platform: A historical and architectural analysis. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  23(1) Vis sammendrag

  A national administration is dependent on its archives and registers, for many purposes, such as tax collection, enforcement of law, economic governance, and welfare services. Today, these services are based on large digital infrastructures, which grow organically in volume and scope. Building on a critical realist approach we investigate a particularly successful infrastructure in Norway called Altinn, and ask: what are the evolutionary mechanisms for a successful “government as a platform”? We frame our study with two perspectives; a historical institutional perspective that traces the roots of Altinn back to the Middle Ages, and an architectural perspective that allows for a more detailed analysis of the consequences of digitalization and the role of platforms. We offer two insights from our study: we identify three evolutionary mechanisms of national registers, and we discuss a future scenario of government platforms as “digital commons”.

• Hanseth, Ole & Bygstad, Bendik (2015). Flexible generification: ICT standardization strategies and service innovation in health care. European Journal of Information Systems.  ISSN 0960-085X.  24(6), s 645- 663 . doi: 10.1057/ejis.2015.1
• Bygstad, Bendik & Lanestedt, Gjermund (2014). POLICIES AND PRACTICES IN WELFARE TECHNOLOGIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF NORWAY AND JAPAN. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748. . doi: 10.1108/tg-09-2016-0057 Vis sammendrag

  Many rich countries experience two opposite demographic trends: a growing number of elderly who will need care over a long period of time – and a decreasing work force of young people. This “gap” represents an economic and organisational challenge, and politicians in many countries expect welfare technologies – especially digital technologies – to contribute to bridging it. In this paper we report from a multi-level study conducted in 2013-14, were we compared the current status of the field in Norway and Japan. Our findings reveal similarities between the two countries, which are echoed in many other countries: Although government expectations are high, the field of welfare technology is in its infancy, and only rather simple solutions (such as safety alarms) are widely used. However, our findings also highlight key differences in innovation strategies for welfare for the two countries, where Japan seem to be aiming for vertical integration through large corporations’ solutions, while Norway aims for a more open innovation arena, through standardization. We think the two countries have something to learn from each other, but in particular, we recommend them both a more platform-oriented approach.

• Fallmyr, Terje & Bygstad, Bendik (2014). Enterprise Architecture Practice and Organizational Agility; An Exploratory Study. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS).  ISSN 1530-1605.  s 3788- 3797 . doi: 10.1109/HICSS.2014.471 Vis sammendrag

  As contemporary organizations experience an increasing pressure to change, organizational agility, i.e. the ability to sense and respond continuously to changes in the environment, is required. Enterprise Architecture (EA) has been proposed as an architectural and organizational approach in order to meet this challenge. In this exploratory study we discuss the usefulness of the approach, building on the contribution of Ross et al. [26]. Our research question is: to what degree can medium sized organizations use EA to build organizational agility? Our empirical evidence is a case study with four medium sized Norwegian organizations. We find that the adoption of EA principles is pragmatic, and that maturity levels are generally low. We do, however, find reasonable support for the assumption that EA is actually increasing organizational agility, in particular the capability to respond to external changes. We identify two paths from EA to organizational agility.

• Magnusson, Johan & Bygstad, Bendik (2014). Technology Debt. Toward a New Theory of Technology Heritage, In  Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS) 2014, Tel Aviv, Israel, June 9-11, 2014.  Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-0-9915567-0-0.  Proceedings.
• Presthus, Wanda & Bygstad, Bendik (2014). STRAWBERRY ANALYSIS WRITING A PAPER-BASED PHD. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Presthus, Wanda (2013). Social media as CRM? How two Scandinavian airline companies used Facebook during the "ash crisis" in 2010. Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems.  ISSN 0905-0167.  25(1), s 69- 90 Vis sammendrag

  Some researchers predict a paradigm shift within Customer Relationship Management (CRM), moving from the traditional large in-house CRM systems to social software such as Facebook. In this paper we investigate two issues. First: are there inherent and unsolved problems in traditional CRM systems that Facebook may resolve in new ways? Second: if so, can Facebook replace CRM systems? We conducted a case study of two Scandinavian airlines’ use of Facebook for customer communication during the airspace ash crisis in April 2010. Our analytical approach was a Business Intelligence analysis using web- and text mining based on 28.000 postings on Facebook. We offer two findings. First, we find that the use of Facebook resolves some of the shortcomings of traditional CRM. The openness of Facebook allows for more dynamic interaction between company and customers. The maintenance of personal data is partly solved by the shared responsibilities of Facebook users. Facebook has a self-reinforcing mechanism for diffusion, meaning that short-term usefulness triggers more use, which again will increase the usefulness of the solution. Second, we do not believe that social media such as Facebook can replace traditional CRM systems, but it constitutes an interesting challenge to them. If not a full CRM, Facebook can serve as a “social CRM”. In contrast to traditional CRM, it is not obvious that the companies will be the strongest part in this exploration, since the customer controls his or her personal information. This is indeed an interesting arena for researchers.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Waal, Anne Lise (2013). The Secret World of Agile Development. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748. Vis sammendrag

  During the past decade most systems development organisations have embraced agile methods, particularly Scrum. This has also been the case in the game industry, where research has claimed that agile methods are well suited for game development. In this paper we investigate to what extent agile methods are suitable for large game development projects. Our empirical evidence is a longitudinal study of Funcom’s development of the multiplayer game “The Secret World”, which we studied from the start of production in 2009 to the launch in the market in 2012. Our results show that the key Scrum principles (team-based organisation, time-boxing and incremental product building) were abandoned when the project experienced strong pressures. We conclude that agile practices are well suited to game development, but that the knowledge infrastructure of a game studio may require a more flexible approach than software engineering.

• Denstad, Henning & Bygstad, Bendik (2013). Managing the IT Alignment Gap in Turbulent Times – An Inside View. Journal of IT Cases and Applications.  ISSN 1522-8053.  14(2), s 28- 46 . doi: 10.1080/15228053.2012.10845700 Vis sammendrag

  In this paper the CIO of a large shipping company describes the challenge of IT-alignment in turbulent years from 2004 to 2010. Our research questions are; how should the CIO relate to a dynamic alignment gap where the business environments are turbulent. How should the CIO understand and manage the IT alignment gap when there is a difference between the espoused and real business strategy? Our framework addresses the interplay of business strategy and IT alignment in four generic types. Through our longitudinal case we show how the framework allows for a deeper analysis of some fundamental challenges for the CIO in turbulent times. We argue that the CIO never should take the business strategy for granted, and we discuss implications for future research. We also present practical implications for the CIO, and a set of recommendations for business management on how to close the gap.

• Grønli, Tor-Morten; Ghinea, Gheorghita & Bygstad, Bendik (2013). Exploring solutions for mobile companionship: A design research approach to context-aware management. International Journal of Information Management.  ISSN 0268-4012.  33(1), s 227- 234 . doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2012.09.005
• Henfridsson, Ola & Bygstad, Bendik (2013). The Generative Mechanisms of Digital Infrastructure Evolution. MIS Quarterly.  ISSN 0276-7783.  37(3), s 907- 931 . doi: 10.25300/misq/2013/37.3.11 Vis sammendrag

  The received literature on digital infrastructure offers powerful lenses for conceptualizing the increasingly inter-connected information system collectives found in contemporary organizations. However, little attention has been paid to the generative mechanisms of digital infrastructure, that is, the causal powers that explain how and why such infrastructure evolves over time. This is unfortunate, since more knowledge about what drives digital infrastructures would be highly valuable for managers and IT professionals confronted by the complexity of managing them. To this end, this paper adopts a critical realist view for developing a configurational perspective of infrastructure evolution. Our theorizing draws on a multi-method research design comprising an in-depth case study and a case survey. The in-depth case study at a Scandinavian airline distinguishes three key mechanisms of digital infrastructure evolution: adoption, innovation, and scaling. The case survey research of 41 cases of digital infrastructure then identifies and analyzes causal paths through which configurations of these mechanisms lead to successful evolution outcomes. Our study contributes to the infrastructure literature in two ways. First, we identify three generative mechanisms of digital infrastructure and how they contingently lead to evolution outcomes. Second, we use these mechanisms as a basis for developing a configurational perspective that advances current knowledge about why some digital infrastructures evolve successfully while others do not. In addition, the paper demonstrates and discusses the efficacy of critical realism as a philosophical tradition for developing substantive contributions in the field of information systems.

• Magnusson, Johan & Bygstad, Bendik (2013). Why I act differently: studying patterns of legitimation among CIOs through motive talk. Information Technology and People.  ISSN 0959-3845.  26(3), s 265- 282 . doi: 10.1108/itp-10-2012-0117 Vis sammendrag

  Purpose – IT governance has become the recognized norm system for chief information officers. The purpose of this paper is to understand how CIOs relate to these norms, by studying how they legitimate incompliance with the norms. Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses an interpretive, qualitative, structured interview study with 18 CIOs in large Swedish organizations regarded as having excellent IT governance practice, using motive talk as analytical lens to identify the informants’ relationship to norms. Findings – The study identifies norm-specific patterns for how CIOs legitimate incompliance with IT governance, finding that CIOs use a combination of excuse and justifications as strategies of legitimation. The study also finds that CIOs display a tendency of not contesting IT governance-related norms unless these are in conflict with neighboring professional jurisdictions. This is regarded as an identification of the “margins” of IT governance. Research limitations/implications – The study illustrates how the theory of motive talk is a viable road ahead for future studies of IT professionals. The generalizability of the identified patterns of legitimation is limited by the selection of large organizations with solely male CIOs, as well as the selection of solely organizations that have succeeded in establishing external legitimacy concerning IT governance and the organizations being Swedish. Practical implications – CIOs aspiring to increase their legitimacy should avoid direct conflicts with neighboring professions. In addition to this, they should also aspire to be clear in a separation of motive talk and actual practice, since full norm compliance may be detrimental to their factual operations. Originality/value – The originality of this paper lies in the methodological approach of combining motive talk and speech acts to investigate CIO legitimation practices.

• Andersen-Gott, Morten; Ghinea, Gheorghita & Bygstad, Bendik (2012). Why do commercial companies contribute to open source software?. International Journal of Information Management.  ISSN 0268-4012.  32(2), s 106- 117 . doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2011.10.003
• Bygstad, Bendik & Nielsen, Peter Axel (2012). Understanding and Managing Process Interaction in IS Development Projects, In  Nordic Contributions in IS Research Third Scandinavian Conference on Information Systems, SCIS 2012, Sigtuna, Sweden, August 17–20, 2012. Proceedings.  Springer.  ISBN 978-3-642-32269-3.  Kapitel.  s 25 - 43 Vis sammendrag

  Software-based information systems must be developed and implemented as a part of business change. This is a major challenge, since business change and the development of software-based information systems usually are performed in separate processes. Thus, there is a need to understand and manage the relationship between these two kinds of processes. In this paper we draw on a longitudinal case study. We suggest a framework to analyze the case as interaction between software development processes and organizational change processes. In the analysis we find that the framework enables us to understand critical events in the case, what led to the events, and what the consequences are. We discuss the implications for information systems research and in particular we discuss the contribution to project management of iterative and incremental software development.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Pedersen, Nils (2012). Arkitektur handler om praktisk arbeid i organisasjonen, ikke en tegning”. En forskningsagenda om IT-arkitekters utfordringer. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748.  s 1- 13 Vis sammendrag

  I denne studien undersøker vi hvilke utfordringer IT-arkitekter møter i sitt praktiske arbeid, og hvilke underliggende problemer vi kan identifisere. Bakgrunnen er at de fleste større organisasjoner er i ferd med å innføre ulike rammeverk for IT-arkitektur. Disse initiativene er drevet av både sterkere krav fra forretningssiden om større fleksibilitet og endringsevne, samt et behov for å rydde opp i systemporteføljene. Forskningsmetoden er en fortolkende case-studie, der vi først intervjuet IT-arkitekter i fem store bedrifter, deretter valgte et finanskonsern der vi dybdeintervjuet seks arkitekter. Resultatet av analysen viser at de praktiske utfordringene er betydelige, og at et samarbeid mellom praktikere og forskere kan være fruktbart. Vi foreslår en forskningsagenda, og peker på behovet for å definere mer spesifikt hva som er IT-arkitektens bidrag til organisasjonens verdiskaping.

• Grønli, Tor-Morten & Bygstad, Bendik (2012). A Successful Implementation of Service Oriented Architecture, In Leonard Barolli; Tomoya Enokido; Fatos Xhafa & Makoto Takizawa (ed.),  26th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications Workshops (WAINA 2012).  IEEE.  ISBN 978-0-7695-4652-0.  Proceedings.  s 41 - 46
• Hanseth, Ole & Bygstad, Bendik (2012). ICT ARCHITECTURE AND PROJECT RISK IN INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS, In  Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Information Systems : ECIS 2012 : June 10-13, 2012, Barcelona.  Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-84-88971-54-8.  Paper 130.
• Hanseth, Ole; Bygstad, Bendik; Ellingsen, Gunnar; Johannessen, Liv Karen & Larsen, Eli (2012). ICT Standardization Strategies and Service Innovation in Health Care, In Joey, F. George (ed.),  Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems, ICIS 2012.  Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-0-615-71843-9.  Chapter 1.
• Johnsen, Alexander Dreyer; Grønli, Tor-Morten & Bygstad, Bendik (2012). Making Touch-Based Mobile Phones Accessible for the Visually Impaired, In Trond Aalberg (ed.),  Norsk informatikkonferanse NIK 2012; Universitetet i Nordland 19 – 21 november 2012.  Akademika forlag.  ISBN 978-82-321-0013-2.  Artikkel.  s 177 - 188
• Presthus, Wanda & Bygstad, Bendik (2012). Business Intelligence in College: A Teaching Case with Real Life Puzzles. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research (JITE: Research).  ISSN 1547-9714.  11, s 121- 137 Vis sammendrag

  Modern Business Intelligence (BI) is about the process of turning data into actionable information, using an assortment of tools, techniques, and applications. Although BI, or its predecessor Decision Support Systems (DSS), has been applied in the industry for about half a century, it has only recently been taught in business schools. In the report “State of Business Intelligence in Academia 2010” Wixom and Ariyachandra found that the discipline faces many challenges in its way from practice to academia. For the lecturer, challenges include access to data sets and finding suitable cases, as well as providing realistic and meaningful examples. For the students, on the other hand, the problem is that BI is ripe with concepts and acronyms and appears too theoretical and abstract. In this study we report from an introductory Bachelor course in Business Intelligence and reflect on the learning process. Our focus is how to make Business Intelligence education more fun and motivating for the students, while at the same time providing the BI lecturer with some examples from real life. We conducted a small action research study in a university college with a class of third year e-business students. Drawing on principles from Problem-Based Learning and Puzzle-Based Learning, we employed a framework of real life puzzles. Each puzzle consists of real life problems, real life data, and real life solutions. Our main contribution is that the real life puzzle approach is a powerful method to teach Business Intelligence concepts and processes. We argue that the similarities between the BI process and the puzzle solving process prepare the students for Business Intelligence learning, in an indirect way. Through the gradual realization on how these puzzles work, the students are able to connect the logical structures of puzzles with the rational way of BI queries. This prepares the students for Business Intelligence learning, and also for practice in working life. This insight should be of interest to any lecturer of BI.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Grønli, Tor-Morten (2011). Service Oriented Architecture and Business Innovation. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS).  ISSN 1530-1605. . doi: 10.1109/HICSS.2011.372 Vis sammendrag

  While the approach of Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) has been generally accepted, there are concerns that it is mainly used as a technical IT solution, not as a vehicle for business transformation. An important question, then, is how can SOA support business innovation in practice? We investigated this issue in an in-depth case study at an airline company. Analyzing the relationship between innovation and SOA in the company over time, we offer the following conclusion. We do find that SOA gives strong support to business innovation, under two conditions. First, the implementation of SOA has to be comprehensive, i.e. it should include the core processes of the business. Second, the top management (and partners) need to understand the principles of SOA.

• Bygstad, Bendik; Grønli, Tor-Morten; Bergh, Helge & Ghinea, Gheorghita (2011). Business Innovation and Service Oriented Architecture: An Empirical Investigation. International Journal of Information Technologies and Systems Approach.  ISSN 1935-570X.  4(1), s 67- 78 . doi: 10.4018/jitsa.2011010105
• Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2011). Complexity and Risk in Health Information Infrastructures. An Options Analysis. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS).  ISSN 1530-1605. . doi: 10.1109/HICSS.2011.121 Vis sammendrag

  Managing the development and implementation of large health information infrastructures has proved to be quite difficult in many countries. The root of the problem is managing complexity in unstable environments. In this study we investigate a large case in Norway, an ePrescription project, using a real option analysis. We offer three conclusions. First, the real option analysis is a valuable tool for analyzing not only risk in IT projects, but also for understanding the complexity issues of large health infrastructures. Second, we find that in large public health IT projects, the pressures for increased complexity are quite strong, particularly when it comes to including more stakeholders in the solutions. These pressures are well-intended, but results in choosing the options that increase the risks of the projects. Third, in such projects the forces fighting for the options of lower complexity are hard to see, and have difficulties in voicing their opinion.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Munkvold, Bjørn Erik (2011). Exploring the role of informants in interpretive case study research in IS. Journal of Information Technology.  ISSN 0268-3962.  26(1), s 32- 45 . doi: 10.1057/jit.2010.15
• Bygstad, Bendik & Munkvold, Bjørn Erik (2011). In Search of Mechanisms. Conducting a Critical Realist Data Analysis, In Cynthia Beath; Michael D. Myers & Kwok-Kee Wei (ed.),  ICIS 2011 Proceedings.  Association for Information Systems (AIS).  ISBN 978-0-615-55907-0.  Artikkel. Vis sammendrag

  Critical realism has emerged as an alternative to positivist and interpretive research during the past decade. Yet, the number of empirical studies based on this perspective has so far been limited. This indicates a need for a more explicit method for critical realist data analysis. To address this, we extend former research on critical realist methodology by presenting a framework for identifying and understanding causal structures in critical realist studies, termed mechanisms. The framework consists of steps involved in identifying structural components of a mechanism, how these components interact to produce to an outcome, and contextual influences on this outcome. We illustrate the application of the framework through an example of the identification of IS innovation mechanisms in a case study in the airline industry. Overall, we argue that the mechanism approach can improve empirical studies in the IS field, by providing ontological depth, creative thinking and more precise explanations.

• Fallmyr, Terje & Bygstad, Bendik (2011). Enterprise Architecture to Enhance Organizational Agility? An Exploratory Study. NOKOBIT - Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi.  ISSN 1892-0748. . doi: 10.1109/hicss.2014.471 Fulltekst i vitenarkiv. Vis sammendrag

  Contemporary organisations experience an increasing pressure to change. This requires organisational agility, i.e. the ability to sense and respond continuously to changes in the environment. To support this unprecedented challenge, Enterprise Architecture has been proposed as an architectural and organisational foundation. This is a rather grand promise. In this exploratory study we discuss the usefulness of the approach, building on the framework of Ross et.al. Our research question is, to what degree can medium sized organisations use EA to build organisational agility? Our empirical evidence is a case study with four medium sized Norwegian organisations. We find that the adoption of EA principles is contingent and pragmatic, and that maturity levels are generally low. We find reasonable support for the assumption that EA is actually increasing organisational agility, in particular the capability to respond to external changes.

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• Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2018). Transforming Digital Infrastructures through Platformization. Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978 1 86137 667 1.  12 s.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Lena, Hylving (2018). Responding to Enterprise Architecture Initiatives: Loyalty, Voice and Exit. Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-0-9981331-1-9.  10 s.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Magnus, Bergquist (2018). Horizontal Affordances for Patient Centred Care in Hospitals. Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-0-9981331-1-9.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Øvrelid, Egil & Thomas, Lie (2018). Establishing an Analytics Capability in a Hospital. Springer.  ISBN 978-3-030-04315-5.  12 s.
• Bygstad, Bendik (2015). The Coming of Lightweight IT. Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-3-00-050284-2. Vis sammendrag

  Two current trends are changing the IT industry and the ways we develop IT solutions; we suggest to call them heavyweight and lightweight IT. Heavyweight IT is the traditional systems and databases, which are becoming more sophisticated and expensive through advanced integration. Lightweight IT is the new paradigm of mobile apps, sensors and bring-your-own-device, also called consumerisation or Internet-of Things. The key aspect of lightweight IT is not only the cheap and available technology as such, but the fact that its deployment is frequently done by users or vendors, bypassing the IT de- partments. Drawing on the theoretical lens of generativity, our research questions are, how is genera- tivity different in heavyweight and lightweight IT, and what is the generative relationship between heavyweight and lightweight IT? These questions were investigated through a study of four cases in the health sector. Our findings show that (i) generativity enfolds differently in heavyweight and lightweight IT and (ii) generativity in digital infrastructures is supported by the interaction of loosely coupled heavyweight and lightweight IT. The practical design implication is that heavyweight and lightweight IT should be only loosely integrated, both in terms of technology, standardisation and organisation.

• Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2015). From IT Silos to Integrated Solutions. A Study in eHealth Complexity. Association for Information Systems.  ISBN 978-3-00-050284-2.  16 s. Vis sammendrag

  In this paper we investigate the IT systems silo problem in e-health infrastructures. After three dec- ades of user oriented systems development the health sector is characterized by system diversity and fragmentation. In response to this situation health authorities in the EU countries have called for a strategy of standardisation and integration; aiming to reduce complexity. It is assumed that this strat- egy will lead to less costly (through better co-ordination) and better health services (through more reliable data). Our research question is, how can we understand and manage the socio-technical complexity of large-scale integration in e-health? Our empirical evidence is a large e-health programme taken by the Southeast Regional Health Au- thorities in Norway, in order to reduce the number of systems and user environments. In particular we investigated the implementation and integration of an electronic patient journal system for 12.000 us- ers. Considering our findings, and building on infrastructure and complexity theory, we find that the current approaches to resolve silo integration are relatively effective in reducing organisational com- plexity, but they may increase overall complexity over time.

• Fallmyr, Terje; Bygstad, Bendik; Fog, Jørgen; Habib, Laurence; Munkvold, Bjørn Erik; Opdahl, Andreas Lothe & Sindre, Guttorm (red.) (2013). NOKOBIT 2013 : Universitetet i Stavanger 18. - 20. november 2013 : Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi. Akademika forlag.  ISBN 978-82-321-0373-7.  228 s.
• Fallmyr, Terje; Bygstad, Bendik; Fog, Jørgen; Habib, Laurence Marie Anna; Iden, Jon; Krogstie, John & Munkvold, Bjørn Erik (ed.) (2012). NOKOBIT 2012 :Universitetet i Nordland 19. - 21. november 2012 : Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi. Akademika forlag.  ISBN 978-82-321-0185-6.
• Fallmyr, Terje; Bygstad, Bendik; Fog, Jørgen; Habib, Laurence Marie Anna; Iden, Jon; Krogstie, John & Matberg, Laila Johansen (2011). Proceedings Norsk konferanse for organisasjoners bruk av informasjonsteknologi - NOKOBIT 2011. Tapir Akademisk Forlag.  ISBN 9788251928458.  253 s.

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• Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2021). Managing Digital Transformation with Sociotechnical Micro-Foundations: A Dynamic Capabilities Approach.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Øvrelid, Egil (2020). Managing two-speed innovation for digital transformation.
• Osmundsen, Karen & Bygstad, Bendik (2020). Patterns of Interaction: Making Sense of Digitalization in Incumbent Firms.
• Øvrelid, Egil; Bygstad, Bendik & Thomassen, Gard O Sundby (2020). TSD: A GENERATIVE RESEARCH PLATFORM IN THE AGE OF THE PANDEMICS.
• Øvrelid, Egil; Bygstad, Bendik & Thomassen, Gard O Sundby (2020). Tsd: A Research Platform For Sensitive Data.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Iden, Jon & Ulfsten, Andreas (2019). Nordic Choice og eBerry.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Lanestedt, Gjermund & Iden, Jon (2019). Some Elements to a Theory of Digital Management.
• Osmundsen, Karen; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2019). Organizing Robotic Process Automation: Balancing Loose and Tight Coupling.
• Bygstad, Bendik; Lanestedt, Gjermund & Iden, Jon (2018). Hva gjør de beste i offentlig sektor?. Stat og styring.  ISSN 0803-0103.
• Danilova, Kjersti Berg; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2018). Understanding the concept of digitalisation.
• Dulsrud, Arne & Bygstad, Bendik (2018). Digital ecosystems as a unit of sociological analysis.
• Osmundsen, Karen Sæbbø; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2018). DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION: DRIVERS, SUCCESS FACTORS, AND IMPLICATIONS.
• Osmundsen, Karen; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2018). Hva er digitalisering, digital innovasjon og digital transformasjon? En litteraturstudie.
• Torp-Holte, Martin; Hjulstad, Kristina Marcelius; Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2018). 'Strategizing' i en smart og tilkoblet verden: En kvalitativ studie av hvordan strategi praktiseres i norske IOT-selskaper.
• Bygstad, Bendik & D'Silva, Francis (2017). En strategisk mulighet for Norge. Stat og styring.  ISSN 0803-0103.  27(1), s 58- 61
• Bygstad, Bendik & Gjermund, Lanestedt (2017). Ledere mangler digitalt språk. Stat og styring.  ISSN 0803-0103.  27(4), s 42- 45 Vis sammendrag

  Regjeringen har en offensiv politikk for digitale offentlige tjenester. Flere undersøkelser viser imidlertid at offentlige ledere i liten grad forholder seg til tidens digitalisering. Er vi i ferd med å bygge en digital offentlig sektor uten at lederne er involvert?

• Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2017). Competing in digital infrastructures. How a Nordic hotel chain competes with the online travel agents.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Iden, Jon (2017). Hotellkjeden som takler nettgigantene. Dagens næringsliv.  ISSN 0803-9372.
• Saunders, Carol; Bygstad, Bendik; Ferran, Carlos; Liang, Ting-Peng; Recker, Jan; Brown, Susan A.; Dennis, Alan R.; Galletta, Dennis F.; Lowry, Paul Benjamin & Sarker, Suprateek (2017). Goals, values, and expectations of the ais family of journals. Journal of the AIS.  ISSN 1536-9323.  18(9), s 633- 647
• Stople, Annette; Steinsund, Heidi; Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2017). Lightweight IT and the IT function: experiences from robotic process automation in a Norwegian bank.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Lanestedt, Gjermund (2016). Det trengs en IT-politikk for plattformer og økosystemer. ComputerWorld Norge.  ISSN 1501-6595.
• Gebre-Mariam, Mikael Hailu & Bygstad, Bendik (2016). The organizational ripple effect of IT architecture in healthcare.
• Mikael, Gebre-Mariam & Bygstad, Bendik (2016). THE ORGANIZATIONAL RIPPLE EFFECT OF IT ARCHITECTURE IN HEALTHCARE.
• Øvrelid, Egil & Bygstad, Bendik (2016). Exploring loose coupling in system interaction.
• Øvrelid, Egil; Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2016). Exploring the Interplay of Discourse and Infrastructure in e-health programmes.
• Bygstad, Bendik (2015). Lett IT - tung trend. Dagens næringsliv.  ISSN 0803-9372.
• Bygstad, Bendik & Hanseth, Ole (2015). Governing eHealth Infrastructures: A Study of Tensions.
• Geir, Falchenberg & Bygstad, Bendik (2015). Finske Tieto and and tungvekts IT-selskaper bremser nyskaping ved å nekte tilgang til pasientjournalsystemer. Dagens næringsliv.  ISSN 0803-9372.
• Iden, Jon & Bygstad, Bendik (2015). Vi trenger bedre IT-ledelse. Bergens Tidende.  ISSN 0804-8983.
• Presthus, Wanda & Bygstad, Bendik (2012). “Design of Nine” for using Business Intelligence in Student Projects. Vis sammendrag

  This paper presents how student research projects can be conducted using Business Intelligence (BI) techniques. While BI is commonly seen as a decision making process with associated tools, we argue that BI can be modified to offer a full stepwise research process. Our point of departure is that the Internet offers innovative and vast opportunities for business students using BI as part of their research. As an example we present an investigation of customer communication on Facebook. Further, we identify nine different BI project designs which show a considerable breadth of possible student projects, ranging from simple blog analysis to predictive surveillance research. We illustrate that the basic BI process constitute a sound research basis for all these designs. We find that BI is useful in an exploratory setting with no clear hypotheses, because it allows for creative queries and analysis of large amounts of data. Overall, we conclude that BI offers some new and exciting opportunities for student projects in an information-rich world.

• Fallmyr, Terje & Bygstad, Bendik (2011). Enterprise Architecture to Enhance Organizational Agility? An Exploratory Study. Vis sammendrag

  Contemporary organisations experience an increasing pressure to change. This requires organisational agility, i.e. the ability to sense and respond continuously to changes in the environment. To support this unprecedented challenge, Enterprise Architecture has been proposed as an architectural and organisational foundation. This is a rather grand promise. In this exploratory study we discuss the usefulness of the approach, building on the framework of Ross et.al. Our research question is, to what degree can medium sized organisations use EA to build organisational agility? Our empirical evidence is a case study with four medium sized Norwegian organisations. We find that the adoption of EA principles is contingent and pragmatic, and that maturity levels are generally low. We find reasonable support for the assumption that EA is actually increasing organisational agility, in particular the capability to respond to external changes.

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