Konstantin Herbst

• Saha, Chitradeep; Owens, Mathew; Lockwood, Mike; Barnard, Luke; Brehm, Nicolas & Dalla, Silvia [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2026). Physics-Constrained Reconstructions of Sunspot Number from Millennial-Scale Annual Heliospheric Modulation Potential. Solar Physics. ISSN 0038-0938. 301(9). doi: 10.1007/s11207-026-02731-0. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Long-term solar magnetic variability governs the space climate conditions. These variations also modulate the galactic cosmic ray influx reaching Earth and subsequently regulate the production of cosmogenic isotopes in Earth’s atmosphere. By harnessing the multi-millennial records of the abundances of these radio-isotopes stored in natural terrestrial reservoirs, such as tree wood and ice sheets, it is possible to reconstruct past solar magnetic activity predating the telescopic era. However, existing regression-based reconstruction methods using isotope data from time series extracted from the reservoirs are often applied to conditions outside the valid parameter range. This can result in a number of problems, including negative sunspot numbers during low solar activity phases, which correspond to statistically permissible extrapolation artefacts but have no physical meaning. To address this, we developed a Monte-Carlo inversion framework consisting of a sequence of physics-based semi-empirical forward models, supplemented by an Approximate Bayesian Computation-based posterior selection, to infer the most plausible temporal evolution of solar magnetic parameters. Our approach produces physically consistent, uncertainty-quantified reconstructions of annually resolved parameters, including sunspot numbers. We apply the method to two modulation potential datasets, namely geomagnetic record from 1845 – 2020, and an annual 14 C estimate over the period 971 – 1932. Our new reconstruction method is designed to yield strictly non-negative sunspot numbers and shows close agreement with direct observations within uncertainty during the telescopic era. These results offer valuable insights into long-term solar variability and provide improved constraints for long-term solar dynamo modelling. The annual-scale reconstructions are also directly usable for solar irradiance estimation, terrestrial climate modelling, and studies of long-term Sun-Earth coupling.

• Herbst, Konstantin; Dalla, Silvia; Engelbrecht, N. Eugene; Muscheler, Raimund; Owens, Mathew & Zheng, Minjie (2026). Assessing uncertainties in the numerical modelling of cosmogenic radionuclide production. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. ISSN 1364-503X. 384(2329). doi: 10.1098/rsta.2025.0348. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract The terrestrial production of cosmogenic radionuclides such as 10Be, 14C and 36Cl is triggered by spallation reactions of high-energy particles with atmospheric constituents such as oxygen, nitrogen and argon. After being produced and transported within the atmosphere, these radionuclides are deposited in natural archives, storing, for example, solar information over thousands of years. Therefore, records of 10Be, 14C and 36Cl can be used to reconstruct solar activity back in time. However, to understand the underlying physical processes that dominate production and interpret the observations, numerical modelling is crucial. Here, we shall discuss the dependencies of the numerically derived production rates on a variety of factors that include the effects of the choice of the local interstellar spectrum (LIS), the geomagnetic field and the production cross-sections available in the literature. We show that the investigated factors have modest to significant impacts on the modelled production rates of cosmogenic radionuclides and identify the discrepancies in the available cross-sections as the most crucial factor. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Radiocarbon and cosmic radiation events’.

• Dalla, Silvia; Herbst, Konstantin; Muscheler, Raimund & Owens, Mathew J. (2026). Radiation doses during extreme solar energetic particle events. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. ISSN 1364-503X. 384(2329). doi: 10.1098/rsta.2025.0259. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Ions and electrons accelerated to high energies during flares and coronal mass ejections at the Sun may escape the solar atmosphere and, guided by the interplanetary magnetic fields, propagate through space to near-Earth locations. These Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) can be detected directly by spacecraft instrumentation. The highest energy SEPs may also propagate through the geomagnetic field and precipitate to low atmospheric heights, producing secondary particles including neutrons and protons that trigger the formation of cosmogenic radionuclides. The space weather effects associated with the SEP ion population (for the most part protons) consist principally of radiation risk to aviation, humans in space and spacecraft. This paper focuses on the risks to aviation and astronauts and emphasizes how the parameters of the SEP event, including fluence and spectrum, affect radiation doses. Space weather effects for events that took place in recent decades, for which a large body of measurements and models exist, are discussed. SEP events of extreme magnitudes, such as those extrapolated from radionuclide data from the distant past are then considered and first estimates of the associated radiation at aviation altitudes and in space presented. These are worst-case estimates derived within the assumption that the radionuclide spike was caused by a single SEP event and that the particle spectrum and geomagnetic conditions were the same during all events. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Radiocarbon and cosmic radiation events’.

• Owens, Mathew J.; Barnard, Luke A.; Muscheler, Raimund; Herbst, Konstantin; Lockwood, Mike & Usoskin, Ilya [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Correction to: A Geomagnetic Estimate of Heliospheric Modulation Potential over the Last 175 Years. Solar Physics. ISSN 0038-0938. 301(3). doi: 10.1007/s11207-026-02640-2. Full text in Research Archive
• Herbst, Konstantin; Scherer, Klaus; Engelbrecht, N. Eugene; Light, Juandre; Effenberger, Frederic & Ferreira, Stefan E. S. [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2026). Astrospheres of planet-hosting cool stars and their impact on exoplanetary habitability. Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. ISSN 1743-9213. 20(S388), p. 337–337. doi: 10.1017/s1743921324001157. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract The impact of stellar energetic particles (StEPs) and galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) on exoplanetary atmospheres, and with that on transmission spectra and biosignatures like methane and ozone, recently became one of the foci of exoplanetary habitability studies. Deriving the exoplanetary radiation field, however, is an interdisciplinary task starting with astrospheric modeling. Although multi-wavelength observations of the Hubble Space Telescope, Kepler, and TESS helped to study the characteristics of planet-hosting cool stars. However, features like stellar wind speeds and mass-loss rates mandatory for astrospheric modeling can only be indirectly derived. Here, a brief review of the astrospheric modeling efforts of three M stars and the transport of cosmic rays within is presented. Using a unique suite of numerical models, the astrospheric plasma environment is modeled magnetohydrodynamically (3D), and the particle transport is modeled using an ab initio GCR modulation code. A recent model effort deriving flare-induced StEP intensities is also discussed.

• Mamonova, E.; Herbst, K.; Kofman, V.; Ozgurel, Ozge; Kowalski, A. F. & Wedemeyer, S. [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Stellar-flare-driven evolution of primordial early exo-Earth atmospheres: Insights from the young M dwarf flare model. Astronomy and Astrophysics (A & A). ISSN 0004-6361. 710. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202558763. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Context . M dwarfs are key targets for terrestrial exoplanet studies, with prospects for atmospheric spectroscopy. However, strong stellar magnetic activity and frequent flaring require modelling efforts to assess their impact on planetary atmospheres. Aims . We investigated one year of atmospheric chemical evolution of a young exo-Earth orbiting an active M dwarf by coupling our young M dwarf flare (YMDF) model of stellar activity with the photochemical kinetic code VULCAN. Methods . The YMDF model provides time-resolved spectral energy distributions for high- and low-energy electron beam–driven flares, which are used as external radiative inputs to VULCAN to compute the time-dependent photochemistry and kinetics for different primordial atmospheric scenarios. Results . We present the impact of stellar flares on atmospheres with a varying water vapour content, ranging from a plausible primordial atmosphere with solar abundances (representative of a planet-forming region in a dissipating protoplanetary disk) to an extreme water-steam atmosphere with other species reduced to trace abundances. This was explored across several configurations: variable flux in the YMDF model, the previous model representing an active but older M dwarf with 10 or 400K additional bottom boundary heat flux, and a constant stellar flux model. Conclusions . Our study suggests that compared to the previous model, the YMDF model produces synthetic flares that exert significantly greater stress on primordial atmospheres, regardless of the water-vapour content. Increased activity and prevalence of mid-size flares has the potential to induce permanent changes in atmospheric mixing ratios, especially in species with low abundances.

• Engelbrecht, Nicholas Eugene & Herbst, Konstantin (2026). On stellar activity cycle-related cosmic ray modulation effects in the astrosphere of Proxima Centauri. Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate. doi: 10.1051/swsc/2026012. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the heliosphere, solar cycle-related changes in galactic cosmic ray (GCR) intensities have long been known to arise as a direct consequence of solar cyclic changes in, for example, the heliospheric magnetic field and the solar tilt angle. In recent years, an increasing amount of observations of cyclic behaviour (especially in terms of stellar activity cycles like the solar cycle) in other stars has become available. The present study, for the first time, investigates the influence of a stellar activity cycle on the modulation of GCRs, taking as a case study the astrosphere of the exoplanet-hosting M-dwarf Proxima Centauri, using a 3D, physics-first GCR transport code. We demonstrate a modest stellar activity cycle-dependence of GCR proton and Helium intensities at Proxima Centauri b, which qualitatively resembles that seen at Earth. However, drift effect play a more significant role, even during periods of stellar maximum activity. For all levels of stellar activity, GCR intensities remain well above those observed at Earth. The influence of these variations on the atmospheric ionisation and radiation exposure of a presumably Earth-like Proxima Centauri b is also investigated. A moderate but non-negligible cyclic variation of up to 28% is found in the atmospheric ionisation profile at high altitudes. Since atmospheric ionisation and chemistry/climate changes are correlated, and with that might impact atmospheric transmission spectra, more precise information on the GCR-induced atmospheric background ionisation in exoplanetary atmospheres is crucial.

• Engelbrecht, N. Eugene; Herbst, Konstantin; Scherer, Klaus; Oughton, Sean & Airapetian, Vladimir S. (2026). Particle Transport from First Principles in the Early Heliosphere: k1 Ceti as a Case Study for the Young Sun. The Astrophysical Journal (ApJ). ISSN 0004-637X. 998(1). doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae313e. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Several studies of Galactic cosmic-ray (GCR) modulation within the astrospheres of stars deemed to be proxies for the young Sun have concluded that the intensities of these particles would, at early stages of the Sun’s evolution, be negligible at 1 au. These studies, however, do not take into account the varying interstellar conditions the young Sun would have encountered as it traversed its Galactic orbit, nor do they realistically model the transport of GCRs. The present study, for the first time, examines the influence of various interstellar parameters in the Galactic spiral arms on the astrosphere of κ 1 Ceti, a young Sun proxy, through magnetohydrodynamic modelling. We demonstrate that these conditions lead to an astrosphere with considerably smaller dimensions than previous estimates. We also model the transport of turbulence parameters within said astrosphere for the first time, demonstrating that turbulence levels could be significantly higher than observed in the heliosphere. Finally, these insights are implemented in a 3D, ab initio GCR transport model to compute GCR intensities at 1 au, demonstrating the importance of drift effects in astrospheric modulation: full drift effects lead to GCR intensities comparable to modern observations, while turbulence-reduced drift coefficients lead to significantly smaller intensities.

• Mamonova, Elena; Kowalski, A.F.; Herbst, Konstantin; Wedemeyer, Sven & Werner, Stephanie C. (2026). Young M-dwarfs flare activity model: Towards better exoplanetary atmospheric characterisation. Astronomy and Astrophysics (A & A). ISSN 0004-6361. 705. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556844. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Context. Stellar flares can significantly influence the atmospheres and habitability of orbiting exoplanets, especially around young and active M dwarfs. Understanding the temporally and spectrally resolved activity of such stars is essential for assessing their impact on planetary environments. Aims. We aim to examine in detail state-of-the-art concepts of flare models to identify what is missing in our understanding of energy deposition during the flare event. By comparing synthetic and observed flare spectra, we seek to determine the modelling frameworks best suited for representing flare energetics and spectral far-ultraviolet features while providing a foundation for investigating flare impacts on exoplanet atmospheres. Methods. In this work, we built the Young M dwarf flare (YMDF) model utilising the combination of radiative-hydrodynamic (RHD) stellar atmosphere models with a high- and low-energy electron beam and corresponding synthetic observables. These models are based on physical principles and were validated with solar and stellar observations. Results. The newly developed YMDF model reproduces the observed continuum rise in both the TESS photometric band and the FUV-A spectral range. Furthermore, the flare distributions generated within this framework show consistency with those observed in our sample of stars. Conclusions. We have developed the YMDF model as a tool to reproduce the time-dependent spectra of flaring young M dwarfs, providing a physically motivated description of their spectral and temporal evolution during flare events.

• Grenfell, John Lee; Taysum, Benjamin; Zelst, Iris van; Schreier, Franz; Innes, Hamish & Smith, Alexis M S [Show all 19 contributors for this article] (2025). Detectability of Atmospheric Climate and Biosignatures with the Large Interferometer for Exoplanets (LIFE) for terrestrial-type Exoplanets. Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. ISSN 0035-8711. doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1878. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We investigate the detectability of atmospheric biosignatures with the LIFE mission. Starting with the modern Earth we model the climate, photochemistry and spectra of Earth-like planets over a range of insolation, gravity, humidity, albedo, atmospheric mass and carbon dioxide abundances and investigate detectability of key atmospheric species by LIFE for Earth-like planets assumed to lie at 10pc for the LIFE (20-day viewing) baseline case. We find that atmospheric ozone (O3) abundances are maintained over a range of conditions. The O3 fundamental band is visible for most scenarios studied but is weakened for exoplanets with cooler central stars. Additional potential biosignatures such as methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chloromethane (CH3Cl) are favored for low UV conditions e.g. exoplanets orbiting cooler central stars or having strong atmospheric shielding. Regarding spectral signatures, CH4 and water (H2O) signals from 6-8 μm are evident in most scenarios, as is the carbon dioxide (CO2) 15 μm band, which strengthens for low-O2 scenarios associated with upper atmosphere cooling. Considering the LIFE baseline case with 20-day viewing, H2O is retrievable with a confidence level (CL) of up to 3σ for the high (90%, 0.9 vmr) CO2 scenario, and with ∼2σ or less for the other scenarios. N2O is not be observable with a CL sigma mostly in the range 1-2. CH4 features a CL sigma detectability range of 2.3-4.4. O3 is detectable with a CL (>3σ) in most scenarios (including the low-ozone Proterozoic) except for the extremely low O3 Archaean scenario and the low pressure atmosphere scenario.

• Herbst, Konstantin & Papaioannou, Athanasios (2025). Estimating solar-radiation environment extremes. Astronomy and Astrophysics (A & A). ISSN 0004-6361. 696. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452096. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Context. Extreme solar particle events (ESPEs) were identified almost a decade ago, providing context for super events unleashed by our host star, the Sun. Their assumed solar origin drives the question of their “worst-case” impact, which could be profound, multifaceted, and devastating for our technological society. Aims. Recently, we proposed a methodology that directly relates the soft X-ray flux (FSXR) of the driving solar flare of a solar energetic particle (SEP) event to its “worst-case” integral fluence spectrum. In this study, we aim to put the letter to the stress test. Methods. In this study, we employed our previous method to the ESPEs that have been confirmed in cosmogenic radionuclide records to date, retrieved their “worst-case integral spectrum, and compared the latter to the actual – independently obtained – recent reconstructions based on the radionuclide records. Results. It is shown that our previous method makes it possible to estimate the integral fluence spectra of one of the paleo events, that is, AD774/775, one of the strongest ESPEs found within the cosmogenic radionuclide records so far. We implemented a mean ESPE utilizing four confirmed paleo ESPEs (i.e., AD993/994, AD774/775, 660 BCE, and 7176 BCE) and tested the resulting spectrum against the estimated one. Finally, we tested the same methodology for a series of strong SEP events recorded on the Earth’s surface as ground level enhancement (GLE) events. In all investigated cases, a recent re-calibration of the GOES 1–8 FSXR values is considered. Conclusions. It is shown that the proposed methodology can adequately estimate the “worst-case” integral fluence spectrum for both strong SEP events and ESPEs, quantifying their impact up to an integral energy of ∼E > 1 GeV.

• Rauer, Heike; Aerts, Conny; Cabrera, Juan; Deleuil, Magali; et, al., including: & Erikson, Anders [Show all 847 contributors for this article] (2025). The PLATO mission. Experimental astronomy (Print). ISSN 0922-6435. 59. doi: 10.1007/s10686-025-09985-9. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  PLATO (PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars) is ESA’s M3 mission designed to detect and characterise extrasolar planets and perform asteroseismic monitoring of a large number of stars. PLATO will detect small planets (down to <2R) around bright stars (<11 mag), including terrestrial planets in the habitable zone of solar-like stars. With the complement of radial velocity observations from the ground, planets will be characterised for their radius, mass, and age with high accuracy (5%, 10%, 10% for an Earth-Sun combination respectively). PLATO will provide us with a large-scale catalogue of well-characterised small planets up to intermediate orbital periods, relevant for a meaningful comparison to planet formation theories and to better understand planet evolution. It will make possible comparative exoplanetology to place our Solar System planets in a broader context. In parallel, PLATO will study (host) stars using asteroseismology, allowing us to determine the stellar properties with high accuracy, substantially enhancing our knowledge of stellar structure and evolution. The payload instrument consists of 26 cameras with 12cm aperture each. For at least four years, the mission will perform high-precision photometric measurements. Here we review the science objectives, present PLATO‘s target samples and fields, provide an overview of expected core science performance as well as a description of the instrument and the mission profile towards the end of the serial production of the flight cameras. PLATO is scheduled for a launch date end 2026. This overview therefore provides a summary of the mission to the community in preparation of the upcoming operational phases.

• Scherer, Klaus; Herbst, Konstantin; Engelbrecht, N. Eugene; Ferreira, Stefan E.S.; Kleimann, Jens & Light, Juandre (2025). Modeling the astrosphere of LHS 1140. On the differences of 3D magnetohydrodynamic single- and multi-fluid simulations and the consequences for exoplanetary habitability. Astronomy and Astrophysics (A & A). ISSN 0004-6361. 694. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202450324. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Context. The cosmic ray (CR) flux, as well as the hydrogen flux into the atmosphere of an exoplanet, can change the composition of said atmosphere. Here, we present the CR and hydrogen flux above the atmosphere. To do so, we study the 3D multi-fluid magentohy- drodynamic (MHD) structure of astrospheres. Aims. We aim to discuss the shock structure of the stellar wind of LHS 1140 using four different models: hydrodynamic (HD) and ideal MHD single-fluid models, as well as multi-fluid models for both cases, including a neutral hydrogen flow from the interstellar medium (ISM). The CR flux in a multi-fluid model and the ionization rate in an exoplanetary atmosphere are also presented. Methods. The astrosphere is modeled using the 3D Cronos code, while the CR flux at LHS 1140b is calculated using both a 1D and a 3D stochastic Galactic CR (GCR) modulation code. Finally, the atmospheric ionization and radiation dose is estimated using the AtRIS code. Results. It is shown that the 3D multi-fluid positions of the termination (TS) differ remarkably from those found in the 3D ideal-single fluid HD case. CR fluxes computed using a 1D approach are completely different from those calculated using the 3D modulation code and show an essentially unmodulated spectrum at the exoplanet in question. Utilizing these spectra, ionization rates and radiation exposure within the atmosphere of LHS 1140 b are derived. Conclusions. It is shown that the multi-fluid MHD TS distances differ remarkably from those of other models, especially from an analytic approach based on ideal single-fluid HD. The TS, astropause, and bow shock distances must be taken from the 3D multi-fluid MHD model to determine the CR fluxes correctly. Moreover, because of the tiny astrosphere, the exoplanet is submerged in the neutral hydrogen flow of the ISM, which will influence the exoplanetary atmosphere. A 3D approach to GCR modulation in astrospheres is also necessary to avoid unrealistic estimates of GCR intensities. Since atmospheric chemistry processes, and with that, the derivation of transmission spectra features and biosignature information, strongly depend on atmospheric ionization, our results highlight that reliable GCR-induced background radiation information is mandatory, particularly for inactive cool stars such as LHS 1140.

• Light, Juandre; Engelbrecht, N. Eugene; Herbst, Konstantin & Scherer, Klaus (2025). On the 3D transport of galactic cosmic rays in a selection of exoplanet-hosting astrospheres: the influence of stellar rotation. Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. ISSN 0035-8711. 537(2), p. 2097–2111. doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf164. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) may influence the habitability of exoplanets. The recently proposed relationship between GCR intensities at exoplanetary locations and the rotation periods of their host stars is here investigated for several M-dwarf astrospheres, namely Proxima Centauri, TRAPPIST-1, GJ 436, and LHS1140, using a three-dimensional GCR modulation code. This relation, where higher GCR intensities result from enhanced particle transport along astrospheric magnetic fields that are underwound due to longer stellar rotation periods, is found to hold for the astrospheres considered here. The influence of the stellar rotation period on GCR intensities in a Sun-like astrosphere on Earth and Mars-like atmospheres is also investigated and found to directly influence atmospheric ionization and radiation exposure.

• Herbst, Konstantin; Amazo-Goméz, Eliana M. & Papaioannou, Athanasios (2025). Comparing the Sun to Sun-like stars: The importance of addressing facular and/or spot domination. Astronomy and Astrophysics (A & A). ISSN 0004-6361. 697. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202452999. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Whether the Sun is an ordinary G-type star is still an open scientific question. Stellar surveys by Kepler and TESS, however, revealed that Sun-like stars tend to show much stronger flare activity than the Sun. This study aims to reassess observed flare and spot activity of Sun-like Kepler stars by fine-tuning the criteria for a more robust definition of Sun-like conditions and better comparability between the current Sun and Sun-like stars. We update one of the recent stellar Sun-like star samples by applying new empirical stellar relations between the starspot size and the effective stellar temperature to derive more reliable starspot group sizes. From the 265 solar-type stars, we could select 48 stars supporting the Kepler 30-minute cadence light curves. These were analyzed by implementing the gradient of the power spectra method to distinguish between spot- and faculae-dominated stars. We employed the -factor to quantify the area ratio of bright and dark features on the stellar surface. We were able to group the 48 stars as being spot- or faculae-dominated, revealing a preferential distribution of the Kepler Sun-like stars towards the spot-dominated (44 stars) and transitional (four stars) regimes. As the current Sun is faculae-dominated, only the transitional stars were utilized for further evaluation. Additionally, accounting for comparability in stellar mass, radius, and rotation period, we show that only one of the utilized 265 Sun-like stars in the Kepler sample (i.e., KIC 11599385) allows for direct comparison to the current Sun. We further show that the single flare observed on KIC 11599385 falls right within the flare energy range estimated for the AD774/775 event observed in the cosmogenic radionuclide archives of Be, C, and Cl.

View all works in NVA

• Herbst, Konstantin; Papaioannou, Athanasios; Airapetian, Vladimir S. & Atri, Dimitra (2026). Erratum: “From Starspots to Stellar Coronal Mass Ejections—Revisiting Empirical Stellar Relations” (2021, ApJ, 907, 89). The Astrophysical Journal (ApJ). ISSN 0004-637X. 1004(1), p. 135–135. doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae6f07. Full text in Research Archive
• Herbst, Konstantin (2025). Panel Discussion "Future of Solar and Stellar Multi-scale Activity". Full text in Research Archive
• Herbst, Konstantin (2025). Space weather impact on (exo)planetary habitability. doi: https:/astronomiaoan.co/iaus400/index.html. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Exoplanets are as diverse as they are fascinating, but much remains to be explored. With the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observing exoplanetary atmospheres, we entered a new era of exoplanetary science in which potential atmospheric biosignatures (such as ozone, nitrous oxide, and methane) are interpreted with increasing sophistication in terms of the evolution of the star-planet systems. However, properly interpreting the observations heavily relies on model efforts capturing atmospheric processes. Utilizing our unique model suite INCREASE, the impact of space weather on observed biosignatures will be discussed.

• Herbst, Konstantin (2025). Modeling the impact of stellar space weather on (exo)planetary habitability. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA