Hystorm – Clean offshore energy by hydrogen storage in petroleum reservoirs

• Masoudi, Mohammad; Meyra, Ariel G.; Nooraiepour, Mohammad; Nezhad, Mohaddeseh Mousavi; Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar & Hellevang, Helge (2026). Revisiting Hydrogen Sorption–Desorption in Natural Rocks. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. ISSN 0888-5885. 65(6), p. 2984–3026. doi: 10.1021/acs.iecr.5c02081. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrogen sorption and desorption in natural rocks are increasingly referenced across subsurface energy and environmental applications, including underground hydrogen storage, natural hydrogen exploration, geological hydrogen generation, and radioactive waste containment. However, the extent to which these physical interactions influence hydrogen behavior in geological materials remains poorly understood. This review examines current experimental and theoretical studies (atomistic simulation and isotherm modeling) of hydrogen sorption and desorption in natural rocks. We evaluated reported sorption capacities and their variability across different lithologies alongside the influencing parameters and the occurrence of hysteresis. Additionally, we modeled all available data using multiple isotherm models to identify the best-fitting formulations. By synthesizing results across diverse methods and geological settings, we identify where physical sorption–desorption is likely to matter, where it is negligible, and what this means for understanding hydrogen transport and retention in the subsurface. Additionally, we provided practical implications of adsorption–desorption, identified critical data gaps, and proposed future research directions to advance the understanding of hydrogen behavior in geological formations.

• Masoudi, Mohammad; Nooraiepour, Mohammad; Blom, Richard; Xi, Kelai; Cerasi, Pierre & Hellevang, Helge (2025). Evaluating Hydrogen Sorption in Shale: Effects of Mineral Composition and Sample Treatment. In EAGE (Eds.), 86th EAGE Annual Conference & Exhibition, June 2-5, 2025, Toulouse, France. European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE). doi: https:/www.earthdoc.org/content/papers/10.3997/2214-4609.202510554. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Understanding hydrogen adsorption on clay minerals is vital for optimizing hydrogen energy applications, including storage, natural hydrogen exploration, and also waste containment. However, safety concerns such as high diffusivity and invisible flame risks limit data on hydrogen’s interaction with various natural settings. This study presents the hydrogen adsorption capacities of four clay-rich shale samples from the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS) and three pure clay fractions. Utilizing a high-pressure gas adsorption analyzer, we obtained hydrogen sorption isotherms and found that non-dried clay samples had lower hydrogen sorption due to competition with water molecules. The sorption data were analyzed using Freundlich, Langmuir, and Toth models, with the Freundlich model providing the best fit. These findings highlight the complexities involved in hydrogen interactions with natural materials and underscore the need for careful modeling and analysis.

• Masoudi, Mohammad; Nooraiepour, Mohammad; Blom, Richard; Xi, Kelai; Cerasi, Pierre & Hellevang, Helge (2025). Impact of hydration on hydrogen sorption in clay minerals and shale caprocks: Implications for hydrogen energy and waste storage. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. ISSN 0360-3199. 99, p. 661–670. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.247. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Understanding hydrogen sorption on clay minerals is crucial for hydrogen energy applications such as surface and subsurface storage, natural hydrogen exploration, and waste storage. However, safety issues surrounding hydrogen gas handling limit the availability of comprehensive data. This study investigates hydrogen sorption in various geomaterials, including four shale caprocks from the Norwegian Continental Shelf and three reference pure clay fractions. We have conducted thorough sample characterization, low-temperature nitrogen sorption, and high-pressure high-temperature hydrogen sorption tests on both dried and non-dried samples. The results highlight the higher hydrogen uptake capacity of swelling clays, particularly montmorillonite. Non-dried clay samples demonstrated reduced hydrogen sorption, likely due to competition between hydrogen and water for sorption sites within the clay structure. Freundlich, Langmuir, and Toth models were employed to analyze the experimental hydrogen isotherms, with the Freundlich model providing the best fit due to the linear or convex-downward nature of the isotherms. Based on our results, we suggest that in a fully water-saturated medium, the sorption of hydrogen on clay minerals is very low, and it is unlikely to significantly affect hydrogen transport.

• Masoudi, Mohammad; Emmel, Benjamin; Betken, Benjamin; Cerasi, Pierre; Ahmed, Elyes & Stroisz, Anna Magdalena [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2025). Feasibility of Hydrogen Storage in Depleted Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Norway. In EAGE (Eds.), 86th EAGE Annual Conference & Exhibition (Workshop Programme), June 2-5, 2025, Toulouse, France. European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE). doi: 10.3997/2214-4609.2025101675. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in geological formations (aquifers, salt caverns, and depleted reservoirs) is a promising large-scale solution, with capacities reaching terawatt-hours. Depleted reservoirs are especially suitable due to well-characterized geological structures, existing wells and surface facilities, reduced cost of field exploration and decommissioning, lower investment cost, and proven sealing capabilities. To assess the feasibility of offshore UHS in Norway for powering platforms with renewables, interdisciplinary research has been conducted under the HyStorm project and the Hydrogeni FME Centre, combining experimental and modeling approaches to evaluate H2 storage potential in depleted offshore reservoirs. This paper summarizes completed and ongoing work within these projects, focusing on hydrogen storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs. The studies include: 1. Evaluation of the hydrogen storage potential of shut-down fields on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. 2. Phase behaviour and black-oil simulations to model fluid dynamics in reservoir systems. 3. Hydrogen sorption/desorption experiments on clay minerals and shale caprocks. 4. Measurements of hydrogen and hydrogen-methane mixture viscosity for flow characterization. 5. Risk assessment of legacy wells and their potential impact on storage security. 6. Long-term reservoir sandstone and caprock shale exposure experiments, followed by post-exposure analysis using gas chromatography, XRD, and acoustic/rock mechanical tests.

• Mykkeltvedt, Trine Solberg; Tveit, Svenn; Sandve, Tor Harald & Gasda, Sarah Eileen (2024). Efficient computational approaches to quantify hydrogen leakage through faults in underground hydrogen storage, Proceedings of ECMOR 2024. European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE). ISSN 9789462825123. doi: 10.3997/2214-4609.202437059. Full text in Research Archive
• Zhang, Qian; Masoudi, Mohammad; SUN, Lingjie; Zhang, Lunxiang; Yang, Lei & Song, Yongchen [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Hydrogen and Cushion Gas Adsorption–Desorption Dynamics on Clay Minerals. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. ISSN 1944-8244. 16(40), p. 53994–54006. doi: 10.1021/acsami.4c12931. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Transitioning toward a hydrogen (H2)-centric energy paradigm necessitates understanding the adsorption properties of clay minerals, essential constituents of reservoirs and caprocks, for efficient geological H2 storage. This study examines the adsorption characteristics of H2 on various clay minerals (montmorillonite, illite, chlorite, kaolinite, and sepiolite) at different temperatures and the adsorption of cushion gases (N2, CH4, and CO2) under reservoir conditions (313.15 K, up to 10 MPa). The results indicate that sepiolite demonstrates superior adsorption capacity under all tested conditions, surpassing montmorillonite by over 12 times at 313.15 K for H2. Illite, chlorite, and kaolinite exhibit negligible H2 adsorption. Thermodynamic analysis reveals that H2 adsorption on clay minerals is a nonspontaneous and exothermic physisorption process. H2 loss due to adsorption hysteresis in montmorillonite and sepiolite is 42.19 and 3.56%, respectively. Sepiolite may exhibit more predictable and stable sorption properties under repeated pressure variations. The H2 adsorption capacity of montmorillonite and sepiolite is merely 0.4 and 4.5% of that of CO2, respectively. This study provides valuable insights for selecting clay minerals and cushion gases for efficient geological H2 storage and natural hydrogen exploration.

• Masoudi, Mohammad; Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Hellevang, Helge & Haszeldine, R. Stuart (2024). Lined rock caverns: A hydrogen storage solution. Journal of Energy Storage. ISSN 2352-152X. 84(Part B). doi: 10.1016/j.est.2024.110927. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The inherent intermittency of renewable energy sources frequently leads to variable power outputs, challenging the reliability of our power supply. An evolving approach to mitigate these inconsistencies is the conversion of excess energy into hydrogen. Yet, the pursuit of safe and efficient hydrogen storage methods endures. In this perspective paper, we conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the potential of lined rock caverns (LRCs) for hydrogen storage. We provide a detailed exploration of all system components and their associated challenges. While LRCs have demonstrated effectiveness in storing various materials, their suitability for hydrogen storage remains a largely uncharted territory. Drawing from empirical data and practical applications, we delineate the unique challenges entailed in employing LRCs for hydrogen storage. Additionally, we identify promising avenues for advancement and underscore crucial research directions to unlock the full potential of LRCs in hydrogen storage applications. The foundational infrastructure and associated risks of large-scale hydrogen storage within LRCs necessitate thorough examination. This work not only highlights challenges but also prospects, with the aim of accelerating the realization of this innovative storage technology on a practical, field-scale level.

• Ahmed, Elyes; Møyner, Olav; Raynaud, Xavier Marcel & Nilsen, Halvor Møll (2024). Phase behavior and black-oil simulations of Hydrogen storage in saline aquifers. Advances in Water Resources. ISSN 0309-1708. 191. doi: 10.1016/j.advwatres.2024.104772. Full text in Research Archive
• Masoudi, Mohammad; Nooraiepour, Mohammad; Deng, Hang & Hellevang, Helge (2024). Mineral Precipitation and Geometry Alteration in Porous Structures: How to Upscale Variations in Permeability-Porosity Relationship? Energy & Fuels. ISSN 0887-0624. 38(11), p. 9988–1001. doi: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.4c01432. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Porous materials in natural and engineered environments are subject to morphological changes resulting from interacting chemical and physical processes. The intricate nature of these coupled processes, occurring at various temporal and spatial scales, poses challenges in predicting alterations in porosity and permeability. Delineating the controls of mineral precipitation reactions is particularly challenging because it requires the implementation of nucleation criteria and growth mechanisms. By conducting pore-scale simulations, we investigated the impact of the amount and stochastic distribution of crystallites, controlled by nucleation, on pore geometry and permeability in two-dimensional porous structures. The observed relationships between porosity and permeability exhibit characteristics that differ from the ones that are typically applied in dissolving porous media because of the clogging effect. Additionally, we propose a stochastic framework that upscales the coevolution of permeability and porosity across length scales. This framework enables the upscaling of clogging behavior to continuum-scale simulations based on statistical probability distributions of permeability–porosity variations.

• Betken, Benjamin; Austegard, Anders; Finotti, Francesco; Caccamo, Chiara; Stang, Hans Georg Jacob & Khosravi, Bahareh [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Measurements of the Viscosity of Hydrogen and a (Hydrogen + Methane) Mixture with a Two-Capillary Viscometer. International journal of thermophysics. ISSN 0195-928X. 45(4). doi: 10.1007/s10765-023-03328-6. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Measurements of the viscosity of pure hydrogen and a binary (hydrogen + methane) mixture with a nominal composition 90 mol % hydrogen are presented. The measurements were conducted with a two-capillary viscometer relative to helium along three isotherms of (298.15, 323.15, and 348.15) K and at pressures of up to 18 MPa. Expanded relative combined uncertainties in viscosity range from (0.65 to 2.7) % (k = 2) for the hydrogen data, and from (0.91 to 3.2) % (k = 2) for the (hydrogen + methane) data. The viscosity data are compared to experimental literature data and viscosity correlations implemented in the NIST REFPROP v10.0 database. Good agreement between this work’s data, literature data, and the viscosity correlation was achieved for pure hydrogen. The (hydrogen + methane) mixture was compared to the Extended Corresponding States (ECS) model implemented in REFPROP v10.0. Relative deviations between the experimental data and the ECS model exceed the experimental uncertainty and were found to exhibit a positive trend with increasing density and a weakly pronounced negative trend with increasing temperature. No experimental literature data are available at overlapping state regions. Nonetheless, deviations to the ECS model imply reasonable consistency of this work’s data and literature data. In addition to experimental viscosities, experimental zero-density viscosity ratios of the fluids under investigation and helium are reported. Fairly good agreement within the experimental uncertainty of this work with a highly accurate literature value and a value obtained from accurate ab initio calculated data was achieved for hydrogen.

• Zonetti, Simone; Dupuy, Bastien; Emmel, Benjamin & Romdhane, Mohamed Anouar (2023). Monitoring casing corrosion of legacy wells using CSEM: implications for large-scale energy and CO2 storage projects in shut-down hydrocarbon fields. The Leading Edge. ISSN 1070-485X. 42(12), p. 808–816. doi: 10.1190/tle42120808.1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Large-scale CO2 and energy storage is a mandatory part of the green shift to reduce CO2 emissions and limit consequences of climate change. Large-scale storage will require the use of shut-down depleted hydrocarbon fields to take advantage of well-characterized reservoirs and cap rocks. Thanks to extensive data from historical hydrocarbon production, the uncertainties related to storage capacity, injectivity, and containment are limited. However, legacy exploration and production infrastructure, and especially legacy wells, are the main threat for possible fluid leakage toward the surface. Such legacy wells are numerous and penetrate the full rock column. In this paper, we describe a workflow to screen and monitor legacy wells in the shut-down Frigg Field in the North Sea. By using numerical modeling of electromagnetic (EM) field propagation in one of the Frigg Field wells, we explore the complex interactions of fields, currents, and well structure in the presence of corrosion. The corrosion is implemented as a change in the electrical conductivity of the innermost steel casing at different depths along the structure. To enhance probing depth, we plug the dipole source (1 km long) into the casing at the seafloor and excite the casing as an antenna. We find that at moderate levels of corrosion, the current distribution is significantly modified with respect to the uncorroded case. This generates a signal that propagates and can be observed at the seafloor in the numerical results. Other elements of the well geometry (e.g., concentric overlapping cement casings) have their own effect on the signal. This leads the possibility of estimating the location of the corroded area within the well geometry. These results suggest that by relaxing some of the model's approximations and implementing realistic transmitters, it will be possible to evaluate and optimize controlled-source EM survey strategies for detecting and monitoring corrosion levels.

• Hellevang, Helge; Nooraiepour, Mohammad & Masoudi, Mohammad (2023). Mineral nucleation and growth in porous and fractured media. Goldschmidt Conference Abstracts. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Early simulation works on carbonization during CO2 storage overpredicted the amount and rate of mineral formation because of unrealistic growth models based on transition state theory (TST), where surface areas for growth were assumed to be present from day one. Inspired by [1], we made our first nucleation-growth model a decade ago [2], providing a zero-dimensional averaged kinetic nucleation-growth model for the continuum scale. This model provided some information on lag time for the onset of mineral growth, which is essential to understand why the lack of mineralization in short-term laboratory experiments cannot be extrapolated in time. The continuum-scale models, however, lack the potential to predict how the pore space geometries change and, thereby, how the permeability-porosity relationship changes in complex ways. Recent efforts have been to implement mineral nucleation and crystal growth in pore-scale models, using classical nucleation theory (CNT) and statistically derived expressions for the induction time of the formation of stable growing crystallites. In the new expressions, the probability of creating a crystallite at each surface site (solid surface area in the pore space) is estimated based on a normal distribution centered around the mean induction time value [τ] (symmetric between t= 0 and 2τ). This has been implemented and tested in 2D pore-scale models, showing strong mutual relations and impacts of transport and crystallization in porous media [3-4]. Another emerging field for nucleation-growth research is how the number of crystallites (or aggregates) and their spatial distribution control the evolution of porosity-permeability relations. 2D nucleation-growth Monte Carlo-type pore-scale RTMs show that the permeability-porosity relationship and the associated uncertainty depend on the number of crystallites (Figs. 1, 2). The relationship evolves predictably if the number of crystallites is small or large. If, on the other hand, the number of crystals is in an intermediate range, the permeability-porosity dynamics vary stochastically and are highly uncertain.

• Emmel, Benjamin; Bjørkvik, Bård Johan Arnt; Føyen, Tore Lyngås; Cerasi, Pierre & Stroisz, Anna Magdalena (2023). Evaluating the hydrogen storage potential of shut down oil and gas fields along the Norwegian continental shelf. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. ISSN 0360-3199. 48(63), p. 24385–24400. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.03.138. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The underground hydrogen storage (UHS) capacities of shut down oil and gas (O&G) fields along the Norwegian continental shelf (NCS) are evaluated based on the publicly available geological and hydrocarbon production data. Thermodynamic equilibrium and geochemical models are used to describe contamination of hydrogen, loss of hydrogen and changes in the mineralogy. The contamination spectrum of black oil fields and retrograde gas fields are remarkably similar. Geochemical models suggest limited reactive mineral phases and meter-scale hydrogen diffusion into the caprock. However, geochemical reactions between residual oil, reservoir brine, host rock and hydrogen are not yet studied in detail. For 23 shut down O&G fields, a theoretical maximum UHS capacity of ca. 642 TWh is estimated. We conclude with Frigg, Nordost Frigg, and Odin as the best-suited shut down fields for UHS, having a maximum UHS capacity of ca. 414 TWh. The estimates require verification by site-specific dynamic reservoir models.

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• Mykkeltvedt, Trine Solberg; Tveit, Svenn; Sandve, Tor Harald & Gasda, Sarah Eileen (2024). Efficient computational approaches to quantify hydrogen leakage through faults in underground hydrogen storage. Full text in Research Archive
• Gasda, Sarah Eileen (2024). Subsurface H2 storage simulation tools. Full text in Research Archive
• Ahmed, Elyes; Møyner, Olav; Raynaud, Xavier Marcel & Nilsen, Halvor Møll (2024). THERMODYNAMIC MODELING AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF HYDROGEN STORAGE IN SALINE AQUIFERS. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study focuses on modeling hydrogen (H2) storage in subsurface formations, specifically examining the equilibrium dynamics between H2 and brine and their impact on hydrogen transport properties in black-oil reservoir simulations. We begin by evaluating and refining various equations of state (EoS) for H2-water and H2-brine mixtures, including molecular-level models such as Perturbed-Chain Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (PC-SAFT), explicit Redlich-Kwong cubic EoS, and an empirical Setchenow-Henry model. These models are rigorously compared in their ability to predict mutual solubilities, validated against experimental data, demonstrating strong predictability across diverse conditions of temperature, pressure, and salinity with a modest number of adjustable parameters. Subsequently, we apply these thermodynamic models to generate Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) phase equilibrium data for incorporation into black-oil simulations, modeling H2 behavior in saline aquifers. We investigate the effects of salt concentration, H2 solubility, molecular diffusion, as well as cycling frequency, injection, and withdrawal rates on the storage and recoverability processes. Several numerical examples are presented to illustrate a range of complexities, including heterogeneous permeability, porosity variations, and diverse rock types with specific entry pressures, providing a comprehensive exploration of the factors influencing H2 storage in subsurface formations.

• Gasda, Sarah Eileen (2023). Transfer of knowledge from CCS to UHS: Factors and criteria affecting large-scale deployment. Full text in Research Archive
• Masoudi, Mohammad; Nooraiepour, Mohammad & Hellevang, Helge (2023). How does probabilistic nucleation control the spatiotemporal distribution of minerals in porous media? Full text in Research Archive
• Masoudi, Mohammad; Nooraiepour, Mohammad & Hellevang, Helge (2023). Assessment of hydrogen uptake ability of clay-rich caprocks. Full text in Research Archive
• Masoudi, Mohammad (2023). Estimating Hydrogen Sorption Capacity of clay-rich Caprocks. Full text in Research Archive
• Masoudi, Mohammad & Hellevang, Helge (2023). Near injector salt scale buildup in CCS due to CO2 plume drying of aquifer. Full text in Research Archive
• Masoudi, Mohammad; Ahmed, Elyes; Raynaud, Xavier Marcel & Hellevang, Helge (2023). Is salt precipitation an issue during geological storage of hydrogen in saline aquifers? from thermodynamic perspective using PC-SAFT EoS. Full text in Research Archive
• Ringstad, Cathrine (2022). Energy storage panel discussion. Full text in Research Archive
• Emmel, Benjamin Udo; Stroisz, Anna Magdalena; Føyen, Tore Lyngås; Bjørkvik, Bård Johan Arnt & Cerasi, Pierre (2022). From HYSTORM to HY4GET- Hydrogen storage projects at SINTEF - Applied Geoscience. Full text in Research Archive
• Ringstad, Cathrine; Cerasi, Pierre; Suire, Matthieu; Xie, Xiyang & Emmel, Benjamin Udo (2022). HyStorm - avoiding leakage through effective reservoir management. Full text in Research Archive
• Stroisz, Anna Magdalena; Føyen, Tore Lyngås; Emmel, Benjamin Udo; Bhuiyan, Mohammad Hossain & Cerasi, Pierre (2022). Impact of hydrogen on ​ rock strength and ultrasonic velocity. Full text in Research Archive
• Suire, Matthieu; Xie, Xiyang & Cerasi, Pierre (2022). Periodic Storage of Hydrogen in Sandstone Reservoirs in the Norwegian offshore – Geomechanical Analysis. Full text in Research Archive

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