Henrik Skaug Sætra

• Tschopp, Marisa; Klein, Stefanie H.; Anderl, Christine; Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Utz, Sonja (2026). Immerse & Befriend: The Role of Synthetic Relationship Perception and Narrative Transportation in a Mental Health App. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. 20(4). doi: 10.5817/CP2026-4-2. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2025). The rise of the research automaton: acience as process or product in the era of generative AI? AI & Society: Knowledge, Culture and Communication. ISSN 0951-5666. doi: 10.1007/s00146-025-02557-7. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen AI) now allows for the seeming automation of most if not all steps in the scientific research lifecycle, giving rise to what I refer to as the Research Automaton – the production of science-like output with minimal meaningful human engagement. This development is often framed through a techno-solutionist lens, promising efficiency gains by treating the traditional, often strenuous, research process as a problem to be solved. This paper challenges that perspective, arguing that the intrinsic value of science lies in this very process rather than solely in the product. Uncritically embracing automation thus entails eroding the formative experiences crucial for researcher development, particularly for early-career researchers, leading to potential skill atrophy and undermining the long-term innovative capacity of science. Drawing on both normative arguments about science as a vocation and pragmatic concerns about preserving essential cognitive and critical skills, I advocate for resisting the Research Automaton, while acknowledging the potential for AI to augment human capabilities when used judiciously within a hybrid cognitive constellation. I conclude by outlining practical implications for researchers, supervisors, institutions, policymakers, and publishers in navigating the integration of Gen AI in research.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2025). To Post or Not to Post: AI Ethics in theAge of Big Tech. Communications of the ACM. ISSN 0001-0782. 68(8), p. 38–49. doi: 10.1145/3708339. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  There are several different perceptions of the proper role of an ethicist. Three of the main ones are the roles of a) impartial observer, b) a guide to what is good or bad, or c) an agent of change. In this article, I argue that the first one is impossible, the second is insufficient, and the third is important but also highly complex. Using AI ethics and the social media platform Twitter/X (X from here on out) as an example, I explore the nature and scope of a potential duty to act on one’s own research findings as an ethicist. I argue that there is a case to be made for such a duty if an ethicist identifies and recognizes a technology’s harmful potential and wishes to avoid complicity and hypocrisy.

• Mills, Stuart & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2025). Algorithms in the room: AI, representation, and decisions about sustainable futures. Technovation. ISSN 0166-4972. 147. doi: 10.1016/j.technovation.2025.103304. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article considers the role of generative AI technologies, such as large language models (LLMs), in promoting the views of underrepresented groups. We are specifically concerned with the role AI could play in encouraging powerful decision-makers—often leading politicians and businesspeople in Western nations—to consider the perspectives of underrepresented groups when making decisions about sustainable development. Some suggest generative AI could offer decision-makers perspectives they had previously not considered, leading to more equitable and innovative policy approaches, and supporting several of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We critique this perspective. Groups may be underrepresented in sustainable development decision-making because of individual cognitive and organisational information-processing limitations (‘omitted, but not opposed’), and because of opposition which remains even if these limitations are overcome (‘opposed, whether omitted or not’). We outline how these ‘categories of omission’ shape the opportunities and risks created by generative AI in representative sustainability.

• Stokseth, Øyvind; Borgebund, Harald & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2025). For us, by us? In Zaidan, Esmat; Ibrahim, Imad Antoine & Azar, Elie (Ed.), Smart Cities to Smart Societies: Moving Beyond Technology. Routledge. ISSN 9781003439325. p. 11–28. doi: 10.4324/9781003439325-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Smart city initiatives promise to revolutionize urban living, offering technological solutions to improve everything from transportation to public safety. Yet, the success of these initiatives depends not just on the technology but also on the preferences, attitudes, and competencies of the people who use it. In this chapter, we take a closer look at the role of citizens, who are often seen only as end users but are, in fact, pivotal players in shaping their cities. We explore various interpretations of what it means to be a ‘smart’ city and map out the different stakeholders involved, placing a special focus on citizens. Throughout the chapter, we question and discuss how citizens can and should be involved in the planning, development, and governance of smart cities. Our goal is to explain how cities can better involve and engage their residents, not just as passive recipients of smart technologies but as active contributors to the smart cities being developed. In closing, we outline practical ways to enhance citizen involvement, ensuring that smart cities fulfill their promise to improve life for all.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Lyng, Kari-Anne Kallerud (2025). Untangling the Life Cycle Impacts of Artificial Intelligence. Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics. ISSN 2198-7246. DTS 2024, p. 3–12. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-80692-6_1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being promoted as an instrumental part of the “twin transition,” in which the digital and the green transition are seen as mutually reinforcing. However, there is a need for better methods and models for...

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Mills, Stuart & Selinger, Evan (2025). Artificial Intelligence. In A., Samoilenko Sergei & Solon, Simmons (Ed.), The Handbook of Social and Political Conflict. Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 9781119895497. doi: 10.1002/9781119895534.ch27. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2025). Preprinting in AI Ethics: Towards a Set of Community Guidelines. Communications of the ACM. ISSN 0001-0782. 38(4), p. 60–68. doi: 10.1145/3699951. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The fast-moving, dynamic world of artificial intelligence (AI) stands in stark contrast to the slow-moving, conservative world of academia. This is particularly clear in the world of AI ethics, where in addition to the industry-academia contrast we also have the meeting of very different academic disciplines, including computer science, philosophy, ethics, and social sciences. The traditions, norms, and values of these disciplines are often at odds with one another, making interdisciplinarity challenging. Take, for example, preprinting, the practice of quickly disseminating research before potentially—but not necessarily—seeking publication in traditional academic journals. Interdisciplinary conflicts appear when, for example, researchers from a computer science background, where rapid publication of preprints on servers such as arXiv is the norm, meet researchers from the social sciences and humanities, where this is less common.

• Sica, Arianna & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Artificial Emotions and the Evolving Moral Status of Social Robots. In Grollman, Dan & Broadbent, Elizabeth (Ed.), HRI '24: Proceedings of the 2024 ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). ISSN 9798400703225. p. 649–657. doi: 10.1145/3610977.3634934. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article aims to explore the potential impact of artificial emotional intelligence (AEI) on the ethical standing of social robots. By examining how AEI interacts with and potentially reshapes the two dominant perspectives on robots’ moral status, namely the property-oriented approach and the social-relational approach, we aim to offer fresh insights into this pressing dilemma. Our analysis reveals that although the incorporation of AEI does not conclusively confer moral status to current social robots, it might challenge the boundaries that separate robots from other entities customarily considered to have more status, thereby increasing the complexity of the debate.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Selinger, Evan (2024). Technological Remedies for Social Problems: Defining and Demarcating Techno-Fixes and Techno-Solutionism. Science and Engineering Ethics. ISSN 1353-3452. 30(6). doi: 10.1007/s11948-024-00524-x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Can technology resolve social problems by reducing them to engineering challenges? In the 1960s, Alvin Weinberg answered yes, popularizing the term “techno-fix” in the process. The concept was immediately criticized and over time evolved into a disparaging term—a synonym for unrealistic technological proposals and their advocates. As the debate progressed, skepticism grew to include condemnation of a related term: “techno-solutionism.” Despite extensive criticism, both “techno-fix” and “techno-solutionism” remain ill-defined concepts. In this article, we provide more precise definitions and clearly distinguish between techno-fixes and techno-solutionism through conceptual engineering. By refining these concepts, we aim to advance the discussion and lay the groundwork for more productive analyses of the role of technology in solving social problems.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). The ESG Backlash: Politics, Ideology, and the Future of Sustainable Business. International Finance Review. ISSN 1569-3767. doi: 10.1108/S1569-376720240000023009. Full text in Research Archive
• Broo, Didem Gürdür; Gellers, Joshua C. & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Re-imagining Intelligent Machines in an Anthropocentric–Ecocentric Continuum: The Case for Ecocentric Intelligent Machines. Journal of Industrial Information Integration. ISSN 2467-964X. 41. doi: 10.1016/j.jii.2024.100636. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Science fiction, sustainability, and scenario use: Comprehensive scenarios for improved strategy development and innovation. Technovation. ISSN 0166-4972. 132. doi: 10.1016/j.technovation.2024.102976. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Businesses are increasingly integrating sustainability – or Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG) – into existing strategies or developing separate sustainability strategies. Simultaneously, they are reporting on their sustainability related impacts, and the use of scenarios is becoming more common both in strategy development and risk assessments aimed at reporting. However, the value of the approaches to scenario analysis in the main sustainability reporting and ESG frameworks is questionable. They tend to be technically oriented and not conducive to explaining and communicating key strategically important aspects of the futures sought understood, which overlooks other critical sustainability dimensions such as social equity and inclusive economic growth. Furthermore, such use of scenarios is not conducive for promoting innovation. This article examines the current use of scenarios, focusing on common business practices, while also emphasising the need to be ambitious and utilise the potential of science fiction in the scenario process. I propose a practical, pragmatic, and “non-ideal” version of scenario development that is a) an improvement on current business practices and b) accessible and useful for companies wanting to utilize scenarios without extensive resources or the inclination to rely heavily on external scenario experts. This culminates in a recommendation that adopt a more comprehensive approach to sustainability scenarios than what is found in mainstream reporting frameworks. By deepening their engagement with scenarios, organisations will be able to improve the foundations for their strategy development processes, which will also be more tightly coupled with an organisation's innovation management and design processes. Most importantly, however, comprehensive science fiction scenarios can help enable a more sustainable future. By creating and shaping imaginaries of more sustainable futures, such futures become more likely.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). The Hidden Assumptions of Variable-based Social Science. In Valsiner, Jaan (Eds.), Farewell to Variables. Information Age Publishing. ISSN 9798887301877. p. 59–72. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Against the Conflation of Corporate Strategy, Ethics, and the Politics of AI. Digital Society: Ethics, Socio-Legal and Governance of Digital Technology. ISSN 2731-4650. 2. doi: 10.1007/s44206-023-00035-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Ethics as we know it is ill equipped to resist abuse by technology companies, Van Maanen argues in a recent article. Ethics is too malleable, provides too many different theories, and allows for a plethora of ethical guidelines to be created, and ethicists purportedly end up enabling ethics shopping and ethics washing. But is ethics really the problem, and is the best solution to “repoliticise” ethics? In this commentary, I instead claim that we must distinguish between politics and ethics, as ethics has a separate and crucial role to play if we are to face the challenges related to controlling technology. This is important if we are to avoid undermining political involvement and democracy. Whilst ethicists certainly have the power to change the world, as Van Maanen argues, they are not—and should not be—provided with political authority.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Danaher, John (2023). Resolving the battle of short- vs. long-term AI risks. AI and Ethics. ISSN 2730-5953. doi: 10.1007/s43681-023-00336-y. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  AI poses both short- and long-term risks, but the AI ethics and regulatory communities are struggling to agree on how to think two thoughts at the same time. While disagreements over the exact probabilities and impacts of risks will remain, fostering a more productive dialogue will be important. This entails, for example, distinguishing between evaluations of particular risks and the politics of risk. Without proper discussions of AI risk, it will be difcult to properly manage them, and we could end up in a situation where neither short- nor long-term risks are managed and mitigated.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). A Machine's ethos? An inquiry into artificial ethos and trust. Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 153. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.108108. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Every day we trust other individuals as we engage in social interactions in which various desirable outcomes depend on others acting the way we hope, or they have indicated. Trust extends beyond specific individuals, however, as we might trust unknown others – individuals, institutions, corporations, and governments. Some also say that we trust various artifacts, such as machines. But what is the basis of trust, and can we really trust technology? Trust is intimately connected to the notion ethos from the study of rhetoric and human persuasion, which is often used to describe various characteristics of the speaker, the audience, the relationship between the speaker and the audience, and the wider context in which communication and interaction occurs. In this article I explore to what degree machines can be considered to have ethos, and consequently whether ethos is a useful concept for understanding persuasive and credibility-related situations in HMI and by extension key aspects of human-machine trust. This allows us to draw on a long lineage of research from, for example, rhetoric, communication studies, and cognitive and social psychology to better understand the usefulness – or not – of using the notion of trust to describe our relationship with machines.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Generative AI: Here to stay, but for good? Technology in society. ISSN 0160-791X. 75. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102372. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Generative AI has taken the world by storm, kicked off for real by ChatGPT and quickly followed by further development and the release of GPT-4 and similar models from OpenAI’s competitors. The street has most certainly found its use for generative artificial intelligence (AI), and there is no longer much point in discussing whether generative AI will be influential. It will, and what remains to be discussed it how influential it will be, and what potential harms arise when we use AI to generate text and other forms of content. Technological change entails societal change, and we must always endeavor to ask how new technologies shapes, engenders, or potentially erodes the “good society”. In this sense, Generative AI is another instance of politically and culturally disruptive autonomous technology, and in this short commentary I highlight some of the key questions to be asked regarding consequences on the micro, meso, and macro level.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Machiavelli for robots: Strategic robot failure, deception, and trust. In IEEE, . (Eds.), 32nd IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN): August 28-31, 2023: [Proceedings]. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). ISSN 9798350336702. p. 1381–1388. doi: 10.1109/RO-MAN57019.2023.10309455. Full text in Research Archive
• Coeckelbergh, Mark & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Climate change and the political pathways of AI: The technocracy-democracy dilemma in light of artificial intelligence and human agency. Technology in society. ISSN 0160-791X. 75. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102406. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  It is generally thought that artificial intelligence (AI) has a significant impact on politics and democracy. Meanwhile, the technology is also often hailed a solution to key societal and environmental challenges. It raises questions regarding, for example, how we can and should deal with climate change. This article links and discusses these issues by putting them in the context of a technocracy-democracy dilemma and by using the concept of critical junctures. Then it identifies two political pathways of AI and critically discusses their underlying assumptions. This offers a useful framework for further discussion of the relations between AI, climate change, and democracy, and enables the examination of important issues for the politics of technology, such as the role of human expertise vis-à-vis artificial intelligence, the problems raised by techno-solutionism, and the question at what level of governance AI and climate change should be addressed.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). A Classical Liberal Argument Against Parental Rights. Barataria. Revista Castellano-Manchega de Ciencias Sociales. ISSN 1575-0825. p. 1–17. doi: 10.20932/barataria.v0i33.655. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  That the freedom of one individual entails the unfreedom of another is a fundamental challenge for liberalism, and this article examines how children pose a problem for certain varieties of liberalism. It begins by showing that the term liberalism is used in very different ways in the literature on parental rights. Then an analysis of a strand of liberalism referred to as classical political liberalism, based on John Locke and John Stuart Mill, is performed. A classical liberal framework is then proposed, where the government does not have comprehensive positive duties to ensure that children achieve certain outcomes, but in which it does have a clear duty to create and secure a negative space for each child. It is also argued that liberal theory is based on a comprehensive conception of the good, and that in order to know what sort of negative space is required, this must be acknowledged.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Key Concepts: Technology and Sustainable Development. In Sætra, Henrik Skaug (Eds.), Technology and Sustainable Development: The Promise and Pitfalls of Techno-Solutionism. Routledge. ISSN 9781032350561. p. 11–22. doi: 10.1201/9781003325086-2. Full text in Research Archive
• Sica, Arianna & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). In Technology We Trust! But Should We? Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS). ISSN 0302-9743. p. 293–317. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-35599-8_19. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). The Role of Technology in Alternatives to Growth-Based Sustainable Development. In Sætra, Henrik Skaug (Eds.), Technology and Sustainable Development: The Promise and Pitfalls of Techno-Solutionism. Routledge. ISSN 9781032350561. p. 249–264. doi: 10.1201/9781003325086-18. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Ese, Jo (2023). Shinigami Eyes and Social Media Labeling as a Technology for Self-care. In Sætra, Henrik Skaug (Eds.), Technology and Sustainable Development: The Promise and Pitfalls of Techno-Solutionism. Routledge. ISSN 9781032350561. p. 53–70. doi: 10.1201/9781003325086-5. Full text in Research Archive
• Schönegger, Philipp & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Locke on Prerogative: Democracy, Libertarianism, And Proto-Utilitarianism. Locke Studies. ISSN 1476-0290. 23. doi: 10.5206/ls.2023.16399. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  John Locke’s role in the advent of modernity has been debated widely. His work has been (ab)used by those arguing from libertarian, democratic, communitarian, socialist, feminist, or postcolonial points of view, either portraying him as a forefather of their preferred political theory or as an antagonist to their avowed political and philosophical goals. In this paper, we are primarily concerned with highlighting the importance of the executive’s prerogative in Locke’s philosophy, as we argue that this concept, often banished to the side-lines, is indeed central to Locke’s political theory. This partial neglect entails that some of the most popular readings of Locke are potentially based on faulty premises. We focus on how Locke’s prerogative is antithetical to the project of seeing Locke as a forefather of libertarianism. Furthermore, this paper’s arguments could also support challenges to interpretations of Locke as an early and important proponent of democracy. Rather than seeking to find support for modern theories through anachronistic and dubious readings of Locke, we focus on how he conceived of an exceedingly strong executive whose actions are exclusively restricted by the public good. We conclude that there is good reason to consider his philosophy proto-utilitarian, something that further highlights the conflict with libertarianism. As such, we conclude that libertarian or democratic theories postulating Locke as their direct predecessor should be re-examined to account for these findings.

• Danaher, John & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Mechanisms of Techno-Moral Change: A Taxonomy and Overview. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice. ISSN 1386-2820. 26(5), p. 763–784. doi: 10.1007/s10677-023-10397-x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The idea that technologies can change moral beliefs and practices is an old one. But how, exactly, does this happen? This paper builds on an emerging field of inquiry by developing a synoptic taxonomy of the mechanisms of techno-moral change. It argues that technology affects moral beliefs and practices in three main domains: decisional (how we make morally loaded decisions), relational (how we relate to others) and perceptual (how we perceive situations). It argues that across these three domains there are six primary mechanisms of techno-moral change: (i) adding options; (ii) changing decision-making costs; (iii) enabling new relationships; (iv) changing the burdens and expectations within relationships; (v) changing the balance of power in relationships; and (vi) changing perception (information, mental models and metaphors). The paper also discusses the layered, interactive and second-order effects of these mechanisms.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Challenges for the Inclusion of Robots in Social Institutions. In Hakli, Raul; Mäkelä, Pekka & Seibt, Johanna (Ed.), Social Robots in Social Institutions: Proceedings of Robophilosophy 2022. IOS Press. ISSN 9781643683744. p. 589–594. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Mills, Stuart (2022). Psychological interference, liberty and technology. Technology in society. ISSN 0160-791X. 69. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.101973. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Power and the use of force are central concerns in liberal political theory. Yet, it is claimed that liberal theory fails to account for the power that is exerted through, for example, personalised nudging based on Big Data. We dispute this claim and through a reappraisal of the concept of negative liberty we show how psychological interference can be both coercive and manipulative. This reappraisal is partly achieved through an examination of psychological equivalents of physical interference, in order to highlight the arbitrariness of excluding the non-physical from consideration. The liberal understanding of liberty and interference here provided enables us to see how power is exerted through technology. It thus provides a novel contribution to the analysis of the liberty reducing effects of new technologies combined with a lack of privacy and a will to manipulate, based on an individualist liberal theory argued to be incapable of just that.

• Mills, Stuart & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). The autonomous choice architect. AI & Society: Knowledge, Culture and Communication. ISSN 0951-5666. doi: 10.1007/s00146-022-01486-z. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Choice architecture describes the environment in which choices are presented to decision-makers. In recent years, public and private actors have looked at choice architecture with great interest as they seek to influence human behaviour. These actors are typically called choice architects. Increasingly, however, this role of architecting choice is not performed by a human choice architect, but an algorithm or artificial intelligence, powered by a stream of Big Data and infused with an objective it has been programmed to maximise. We call this entity the autonomous choice architect. In this paper, we present an account of why artificial intelligence can fulfil the role of a choice architect and why this creates problems of transparency, responsibility and accountability for nudges. We argue that choice architects, be them autonomous computational systems or human-beings, at a most basic level select, from a range of designs, the design which is most likely to maximise a pre-determined objective. We then proceed to argue that, given the growing demand for targeted, personalised choice architecture and for faster, dynamic reconfigurations of choice architecture, as well as the ever-expanding pool of data from which feedback can be drawn, the role of the human choice architect is increasingly obscured behind algorithmic, artificially intelligent systems. We provide a discussion of the implications of autonomous choice architects, focusing on the importance of the humans who programme these systems, ultimately arguing that despite technological advances, the responsibility of choice architecture and influence remains firmly one human beings must bear.

• Danaher, John & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Technology and moral change: the transformation of truth and trust. Ethics and Information Technology. ISSN 1388-1957. 24(3). doi: 10.1007/s10676-022-09661-y. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Technologies can have profound efects on social moral systems. Is there any way to systematically investigate and anticipate these potential efects? This paper aims to contribute to this emerging feld on inquiry through a case study method. It focuses on two core human values—truth and trust—describes their structural properties and conceptualisations, and then considers various mechanisms through which technology is changing and can change our perspective on those values. In brief, the paper argues that technology is transforming these values by changing the costs/benefts of accessing them; allowing us to substitute those values for other, closely-related ones; increasing their perceived scarcity/abundance; and disrupting traditional value-gatekeepers. This has implications for how we study other, technologically-mediated, value changes.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Coeckelbergh, Mark & Danaher, John (2022). The AI Ethicist's Dirty Hands Problem: Attempting to balance sometimes-conflicting interests. Communications of the ACM. ISSN 0001-0782. 66(1), p. 39–41. doi: 10.1145/3529751. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). The ethics of trading privacy for security: The multifaceted effects of privacy on liberty and security. Technology in society. ISSN 0160-791X. 68. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101854. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A recurring question in political philosophy is how to understand and analyse the trade-off between security and liberty. With modern technology, however, it is possible to argue that the former trade-off can be exchanged with the trade-off between security and privacy. I focus on the ethical considerations involved in the trade-off between privacy and security in relation to policy formation. Firstly, different conceptions of liberty entail different functions of privacy. Secondly, privacy and liberty form a complex and interdependent relationship with security. Some security is required for privacy and liberty to have value, but attempting to increase security beyond the required level will erode the value of both, and in turn threaten security. There is no simple balance between any of the concepts, as all three must be considered, and their relationships are complex. This necessitates a pluralistic theoretical approach in order to evaluate policymaking related to the proposed trade of privacy for security.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). The AI ESG protocol: Evaluating and disclosing the environment, social, and governance implications of artificial intelligence capabilities, assets, and activities. Sustainable Development. ISSN 0968-0802. doi: 10.1002/sd.2438. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  AI and data are key strategic resources and enablers of the digital transition. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and data are also intimately related to a company's environment, social, and governance (ESG) performance and the generation of sustainability related impacts. These impacts are increasingly scrutinized by markets and other stakeholders, as ESG performance impacts both valuation and risk assessments. It impacts an entity's potential to contribute to good, but it also relates to risks concerning, for example, alignment with current and coming regulations and frameworks. There is currently limited information on and a lack of a unified approach to AI and ESG and a need for tools for systematically assessing and disclosing the ESG related impacts of AI and data capabilities. I here propose the AI ESG protocol, which is a flexible high-level tool for evaluating and disclosing such impacts, engendering increased awareness of impacts, better AI governance, and stakeholder communication.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Actions and Experiences in Human-machine Alliances. In Orban, Franck & Larsen, Elin Strand (Ed.), Living Alliances, Leaving Alliances: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Waxmann Verlag. ISSN 9783830944492. p. 189–202. doi: 10.31244/9783830994497. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Scaffolding Human Champions: AI as a More Competent Other. Human Arenas. ISSN 2522-5790. doi: 10.1007/s42087-022-00304-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Artifcial intelligence (AI) has surpassed humans in a number of specialised intellectual activities—chess and Go being two of many examples. Amongst the many potential consequences of such a development, I focus on how we can utilise cutting edge AI to promote human learning. The purpose of this article is to explore how a specialised AI can be utilised in a manner that promotes human growth by acting as a tutor to our champions. A framework for using AI as a tutor of human champions based on Vygotsky’s theory of human learning is here presented. It is based on a philosophical analysis of AI capabilities, key aspects of Vygotsky’s theory of human learning, and existing research on intelligent tutoring systems. The main method employed is the theoretical development of a generalised framework for AI powered expert learning systems, using chess and Go as examples. In addition to this, data from public interviews with top professionals in the games of chess and Go are used to examine the feasibility and realism of using AI in such a manner. Basing the analysis on Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of development, I explain how AI operates in the zone of proximal development of our champions and how even non-educational AI systems can perform certain scafolding functions. I then argue that AI combined with basic modules from intelligent tutoring systems could perform even more scafolding functions, but that the most interesting constellation right now is scafolding by a group consisting of AI in combination with human peers and instructors.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Fosch-Villaronga, Eduard & Dahl, Christine (2022). Normativity assumptions in the design and application of social robots for autistic children. Linköping Electronic Conference Proceedings. ISSN 1650-3686. p. 136–140. doi: 10.3384/ecp187023. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Social robots interact with human beings and are used for a variety of therapeutic purposes, for example in interaction with children with neurodevelopmental disorders. A key ethical issue related to the application of social robots in these contexts is the idea of normativity, involved in both the design of social robots, i.e., the use of such robots to portray or mimic what is normal and to identify deviant behaviour or development. The article presents the beginnings of a framework for incorporating divergent opinions of normal social functioning, particularly neurodiversity, into the design and application of social robots.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Danaher, John (2022). To Each Technology Its Own Ethics: The Problem of Ethical Proliferation. Philosophy & Technology. ISSN 2210-5433. 35(4). doi: 10.1007/s13347-022-00591-7. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Ethics plays a key role in the normative analysis of the impacts of technology. We know that computers in general and the processing of data, the use of artificial intelligence, and the combination of computers and/or artificial intelligence with robotics are all associated with ethically relevant implications for individuals, groups, and society. In this article, we argue that while all technologies are ethically relevant, there is no need to create a separate ‘ethics of X’ or ‘X ethics’ for each and every subtype of technology or technological property—e.g. computer ethics, AI ethics, data ethics, information ethics, robot ethics, and machine ethics. Specific technologies might have specific impacts, but we argue that they are often sufficiently covered and understood through already established higher-level domains of ethics. Furthermore, the proliferation of tech ethics is problematic because (a) the conceptual boundaries between the subfields are not well-defined, (b) it leads to a duplication of effort and constant reinventing the wheel, and (c) there is danger that participants overlook or ignore more fundamental ethical insights and truths. The key to avoiding such outcomes lies in a taking the discipline of ethics seriously, and we consequently begin with a brief description of what ethics is, before presenting the main forms of technology related ethics. Through this process, we develop a hierarchy of technology ethics, which can be used by developers and engineers, researchers, or regulators who seek an understanding of the ethical implications of technology. We close by deducing two principles for positioning ethical analysis which will, in combination with the hierarchy, promote the leveraging of existing knowledge and help us to avoid an exaggerated proliferation of tech ethics.

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). A Hobbesian Argument for World Government. Philosophies. 7(3). doi: 10.3390/philosophies7030066. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The legitimacy of government is often linked to its ability to maintain order and secure peace. Thomas Hobbes’ political philosophy provides a clear description of why government is necessary, as human nature and the structures emerging out of human social interaction are such that order and peace will not naturally emerge to a sufficient degree. Hobbes’ general argument is often accepted at the national level, but in this article, I explore why a Hobbesian argument for the international level—an argument for world government—is deducible from his philosophy. Hobbes builds his philosophy on his conception of human nature and argues that individuals’ interests and preferences should be the determinant for evaluating the value of a political entity. By emphasising these aspects of Hobbes’ theory, I argue that several contemporary phenomena suggest that a world government could be preferable to the states system. The cases used are the outbreak of war in Europe in 2022 and the continuing and accelerating environmental crisis. Through this examination, the continued relevance of Hobbes’ political philosophy is demonstrated, and according to Hobbes’ own logic, those who accept the argument should also seek to implement such a solution.

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• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Technology and Sustainable Development: The Promise and Pitfalls of Techno-Solutionism. Routledge. ISBN 9781032350561. 286 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). AI for the Sustainable Development Goals. CRC Press. ISBN 9781032044064. 112 p. Full text in Research Archive

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• Aas, Endre Ugelstad; Rettberg, Jill Walker & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2026). Eksperter advarer: Vi kan ikke stole fullt ut på Pangram. [Journal]. Klassekampen. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Pangram har avslørt prisvinnende forfattere og kjente journalister. Men er KI-detektoren presis nok?

• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2025). Leaving X Henrik Skaug S tra considers why users are fleeing the former Twitter social media platform. Communications of the ACM. ISSN 0001-0782. 68(4), p. 6–7. doi: 10.1145/3708968. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Unges bruk av teknologi i seksualitet og kjærlighet - har vi noe å frykte? Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Mysen, Kristian H¿egh (2024). Kan kunstig intelligens som dreper, være en god ting? Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Navigating AI Risks: Ethics, Safety, and Global Implications. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). KI, desinformasjon og tillit i krisesituasjoner. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Don't trust your senses! Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). The Twin Transition Explored. Full text in Research Archive
• Marisa, Tschopp & Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Relationships with digital companions are becoming more like human ones. The Yuan. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Opportunities and potential pitfalls of AI-supported democracy. The Loop. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Lyng, Kari-Anne Kallerud (2024). Untangling the life cycle impacts of AI. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Machine Deception. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Er kunstig intelligens slutten? [TV]. NRK Debatten. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Slik kan arbeidslivet endre seg hvis roboter kan gjøre stadig flere jobber. [Journal]. forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Får vi et kaldere samfunn hvis roboter hjelper eldre og syke? [Journal]. Forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). The Rise of the Research Automaton. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Technology and Social Impact: Understanding the Potential and Pitfalls. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). From X to Bluesky: To Echo Chamber or Not to Echo Chamber? Communications of the ACM. ISSN 0001-0782. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Politics, solved? AI Challenging Democracy. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Slik har teknologi bidratt til å sikre Trump seier i det amerikanske valget. [Internet]. Titan.uio.no. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). Teknologi, kjærlighet og sex: Case funksjonsnedsettelser. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2024). AI and the Sustainable Development Goals. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Does ‘AI effect everybody’? How do we keep human bias out of our AI? Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Velden, Maja van der (2023). En minister for tekno­logi­op­ti­mister. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Borgebund, Harald; Velden, Maja van der; Danaher, John; Coeckelbergh, Mark & Selinger, Evan (2023). En KI-milliard for din tekno-optimisme. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). AI for sustainability. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Book review: Work and Technological Change, by Stephen Barley (2020). Prometheus. ISSN 0810-9028. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Teknologi og et sexpositivt samfunn. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Pondering AI Discussion Series: AI, Society and Sustainability with Henrik Skaug Sætra. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Kunstig intelligens, desinformasjon og tillit. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). AI and Data for the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Big Data. In Mattingly, James (Eds.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Sage Publications. ISSN 9781483347721. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). The Social Construction of Robot Moral Agency. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). AI for Sustainable Development with Henrik Skaug Sætra. [Radio]. Pondering AI. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). The future of love, sex, and technology. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Bruk av KI-verktøy i forskningsprosessen. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2023). Introduction. In Sætra, Henrik Skaug (Eds.), Technology and Sustainable Development: The Promise and Pitfalls of Techno-Solutionism. Routledge. ISSN 9781032350561. p. 1–11. doi: 10.1201/9781003325086-1. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Kyborger: Mennesket 2.0. [Internet]. NDLA.no. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Sustainability and simulation. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). AI and climate change: actors, initiatives, and the benefits of a global coordinated approach. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). AI in context: The sustainability of AI. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). AI and Big Data's threefold threat to liberty. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Det digitale samfunn. Full text in Research Archive
• Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Fosch-Villaronga, Eduard & Dahl, Christine (2022). Normativity assumptions in social robots for autistic children. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). A shallow defence of a technocracy of artificial intelligence. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Storebror ser deg. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). AI and the political targets of SDG 16. doi: 10.4324/9781003435136-4. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Our Digital Life Part 5: Artificial Intelligence. [Radio]. In over my head. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Overtrust and social robots. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Linking AI and ESG. Full text in Research Archive
• Müller, Anders Riel; Hillesund, Terje; Sætra, Henrik Skaug & Solheim, Eirik (2022). Er en digital fremtid smart? Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Henrik Skaug Sætra: Framing AI impacts with SDGs is beneficial. [Internet]. Ethicsintech.eu. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Political cybernetics and the enduring value of human chaos. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Challenges for the inclusion of robots in social institutions. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Er en digital fremtid smart? Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Henrik Skaug Sætra vil gjøre kunstig intelligens lett forståelig. [Journal]. Halden Arbeiderblad. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug (2022). Evaluating the impact of AI on the Sustainable Development Goals. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Bilgrei, Ola Røed; Vestøl, Gro Malene; Hystad, Jacob & Hjort, Jens Lunnan (2023). Barn og unges erfaring med rasisme og diskriminering. Proba Samfunnsanalyse. Full text in Research Archive
• Sætra, Henrik Skaug; Enstad, Johannes Due; Juul, Ane Fürst; Ida, Gram; Hjort, Jens Lunnan & Thorbjørnsrud, Trude (2023). Evaluering av handlingsplaner mot antisemittisme 2016-2023. Proba samfunnsanalyse. Full text in Research Archive

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