Publications
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Eftestøl, Sindre; Alemu, Diress Tsegaye; Flydal, Kjetil & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2023).
Effects of Wind Power Development on Reindeer: Global Positioning System Monitoring and Herders’ Experience.
Rangeland Ecology & Management.
ISSN 1550-7424.
87,
p. 55–68.
doi:
10.1016/j.rama.2022.11.011.
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Reimers, Eigil; Eftestøl, Sindre & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2021).
Vigilance in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus); evolutionary history, predation and human interference.
Polar Biology.
ISSN 0722-4060.
44,
p. 997–1007.
doi:
10.1007/s00300-021-02857-w.
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To elucidate genetic variability in vigilance behaviour for reindeer with historical differences in their interactions with predators and humans, we measured vigilance frequency and duration for grazing reindeer in Southern Norway (Rondane and Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell), Svalbard (Edgeøya and Nordenskiöld Land) and Barf/Royal Bay and Busen in the southern Hemisphere (South Georgia). Averaged for all areas, frequency and duration of vigilance bouts were less than 0.5 and 2.5 s, respectively. Frequency was insignificantly 1.3 times higher in Rondane than Edgeøya, and significantly 2.0, 3.5, 5.2 and 12.4 times higher than Norefjell, Nordenskiöld Land, Barf/Royal Bay and Busen, respectively. Duration per vigilance bout was not different amongst the areas. Thus, while frequency varied considerably, duration remained constant, supporting a hard-wired adaptation to, among other suggestions, an open landscape. Plasticity in frequency allows for flexible behavioral responses to environmental factors with predation, domestication and hunting key drivers for reindeer. Other factors include (1) the open, treeless alpine/Arctic environment inhabited by Rangifer subspecies allowing warning time, (2) grouping behaviour, (3) relative low density of predators and (4) the anatomy and physiology of ungulate vision.
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Eftestøl, Sindre; Tsegaye, Diress; Flydal, Kjetil & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2021).
Cumulative effects of infrastructure and human disturbance: a case study with reindeer.
Landscape Ecology.
ISSN 0921-2973.
36,
p. 2673–2689.
doi:
10.1007/s10980-021-01263-1.
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Context Within Rangifer ranges, many studies focus on expanding infrastructure and human activity negatively influencing habitat use. Little documentation exists on how disturbances act in synergy (i.e. cumulative effects), nor methods to test such effects. Objectives (1) Investigate how cumulative disturbance at different distances affects reindeer habitat use and (2) at what disturbance levels and distances loss of habitat functionality occurs. Methods Disturbance intensity levels for trails and infrastructure were based on expected amount of human activity, on a scale from 1 to 6. To test cumulative disturbance, we adapted the multi-grain method and summed-up disturbance intensity levels within “disturbance distance intervals” (0–0.25, 0.25–1, 1–2 km, etc. instead of 0–0.25, 0–1, 0–2 km, etc.), and tested reindeers’ avoidance using GPS data for 2011–2018. Results We found decreased habitat use within 0.25 km with increasing cumulative disturbance for snow free and winter seasons. For spring, a similar effect occurred up to 1 km. Reductions in use in areas with highest cumulative disturbance within these zones were between 92 and 98%. Strongest avoidance during spring supports previous studies. Comparatively, the multi-grain approach showed negative effects up to 3 km. Conclusions Our approach provides novel results and precisely estimates where cumulative effects actually occur. Reindeer in our study tolerate low intensities of human disturbance, while further increase in disturbance intensity reduces habitat functionality. We suggest clustering future human developments within areas of high disturbance, i.e. where functional habitat use is already lost or highly reduced. Our method can be used for other areas and species.
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Reimers, Eigil; Eftestøl, Sindre; Alemu, Diress Tsegaye & Granum, Knut
(2020).
Reindeer fidelity to high quality winter pastures outcompete power line barrier effects.
Rangifer.
ISSN 0333-256X.
40(1),
p. 27–40.
doi:
10.7557/2.40.1.4968.
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We investigated barrier effects of a 66 kV power line established in 1966 before and after the line was upgraded to 132 kV in 2004 over a period of 44 years (1974-2017) in the North Ottadalen wild reindeer area (3245 km2 ) of which 1038 km2 are in use as winter pastures. The power line transects a peninsula (135 km2 ) with high quality winter pastures in the southeast periphery. The reindeer population originated from a nucleus herd of 402 animals of domestic origin released in the area in 1964-1965 and 100 resident wild animals. Yearly winter survey started in 1974 and reindeer were first surveyed south of the 66 kV power line in 1982. Comparing the number of animals recorded in the peninsula vs. the number of individuals expected relative to available grazing area during the three periods (1974-2004, 1982-2004 and 2005-2017), the number of animals recorded in the peninsula was 3.6–4.9 times higher than expected. Since the upgrade of the power line, a substantial part of the reindeer population grazed in the peninsula every year. We therefore conclude that there was no long-term barrier effect from the original power line and no barrier effects at all from the upgrade. However, during the first 5 surveys of this study, there were no animals in the peninsula. Therefore, even if there are several possible reasons for this, we cannot exclude the possibility of short-term barrier effects resulting from the construction of the original power line. Our results support recent studies that report no effects from existing power lines and contrast some previous findings that have reported strong longterm barrier and avoidance effects of such infrastructure for Rangifer migration and grazing behaviour.
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Eftestøl, Sindre; Flydal, Kjetil; Tsegaye, Diress & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2019).
Mining activity disturbs habitat use of reindeer in Finnmark, Northern Norway.
Polar Biology.
ISSN 0722-4060.
42(10),
p. 1849–1858.
doi:
10.1007/s00300-019-02563-8.
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Flydal, Kjetil; Tsegaye, Diress; Eftestøl, Sindre; Reimers, Eigil & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2019).
Rangifer within areas of human influence: understanding effects in relation to spatiotemporal scales.
Polar Biology.
ISSN 0722-4060.
42(1),
p. 1–16.
doi:
10.1007/s00300-018-2410-6.
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Skatter, Hans Gaute; Charlebois, ML; Eftestøl, Sindre; Tsegaye, Diress; Colman, Jonathan Edward & Kansas, JL
[Show all 8 contributors for this article]
(2017).
Living in a burned landscape: woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) use of postfire residual patches for calving in a high fire - low anthropogenic Boreal Shield ecozone.
Canadian Journal of Zoology.
ISSN 0008-4301.
95(12),
p. 975–984.
doi:
10.1139/cjz-2016-0307.
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Tsegaye, Diress; Colman, Jonathan Edward; Eftestøl, Sindre; Flydal, Kjetil; Røthe, Gunnlaug & Rapp, Kåre
(2017).
Reindeer spatial use before, during and after construction of a wind farm.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science.
ISSN 0168-1591.
195,
p. 103–111.
doi:
10.1016/j.applanim.2017.05.023.
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The Fakken Wind farm (WF) was built in 2010–12 on the Fakken peninsula on the south-east corner of the island of Vannøy. Field and GPS sampling was conducted to test the interaction between reindeer spatial use and the WF with associated infrastructure for the period 2007–2015. “Before data” for both direct observations and GPS-positions confirmed that the site where the WF was built was an important winter grazing area for reindeer. Testing data from before, during and after construction of the WF showed that the overall use on the island and for the WF area did not change during the study period. The reindeer density did not vary significantly among the periods, both for the WF and power line areas. We found no avoidance responses on reindeer spatial use towards the WF during the operation periods for direct observation data. However, we found some significant changes in reindeer area use that may be related to disturbance from human activities for the calving period during construction in WF zone 1 and road zone 1 (GPS-data), and for the power line area during construction in summer and autumn (direct observational data). Our study site represents an area where coexistence of reindeer husbandry and wind energy development is possible, with negligible effects on reindeer spatial use during and after WF development. We recommend that new WFs should be built close to existing infrastructure and limit an increase in human accessibility to remote areas where reindeer are less accustomed to human activity.
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Eftestøl, Sindre; Alemu, Diress Tsegaye; Flydal, Kjetil & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2016).
From high voltage (300 kV) to higher voltage (420 kV) power lines: reindeer avoid construction activities.
Polar Biology.
ISSN 0722-4060.
39(4),
p. 689–699.
doi:
10.1007/s00300-015-1825-6.
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Alemu, Diress Tsegaye; Flydal, Kjetil; Rivrud, Inger Maren; Reimers, Egill & Eftestøl, Sindre
(2015).
High-voltage power lines near wild reindeer calving areas.
European Journal of Wildlife Research.
ISSN 1612-4642.
61(6),
p. 881–893.
doi:
10.1007/s10344-015-0965-x.
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Eftestøl, Sindre; Tsegaye, Diress; Herfindal, Ivar; Flydal, Kjetil & Colman, Jonathan Edward
(2014).
Measuring effects of linear obstacles on wildlife movements: accounting for the relationship between step length and crossing probability.
European Journal of Wildlife Research.
ISSN 1612-4642.
60(2),
p. 271–278.
doi:
10.1007/s10344-013-0779-7.
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Eftestøl, Sindre; Alemu, Diress Tsegaye; Flydal, Kjetil & Mysterud, Atle
(2013).
Summer distribution of semi-domesticated reindeer relative to a new wind-power plant.
European Journal of Wildlife Research.
ISSN 1612-4642.
59(3),
p. 359–370.
doi:
10.1007/s10344-012-0682-7.
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Reimers, Eigil & Eftestøl, Sindre
(2012).
Response Behaviors of Svalbard Reindeer towards Humans and Humans Disguised as Polar Bears on Edgeoya.
Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine research.
ISSN 1523-0430.
44(4),
p. 483–489.
doi:
10.1657/1938-4246-44.4.483.
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Eftestøl, Sindre; Tsegaye, Diress; Flydal, Kjetil & Mysterud, Atle
(2012).
Is a wind-power plant acting as a barrier for reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus movements?
Wildlife Biology.
ISSN 0909-6396.
18(4),
p. 439–445.
doi:
10.2981/11-116.
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Reimers, Eigil; Loe, Leif Egil; Eftestøl, Sindre; Colman, Jonathan Edward & Dahle, Bjørn
(2009).
Effects of Hunting on Response Behaviors of Wild Reindeer.
Journal of Wildlife Management.
ISSN 0022-541X.
73(6),
p. 844–851.
doi:
10.2193/2008-133.
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Because wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are hunted in southern Norway, reindeer may perceive all recreationists as threats.
Potential adverse effects of hunting on reindeer behavior may be exacerbated by other forms of recreation because the number of skiers and
hikers in areas inhabited by reindeer has also increased. The Norefjell–Reinsjøfjell wild reindeer area is used extensively for recreation and
tourism. Reindeer hunting was introduced in the area in 1992, and harvest rate has been stable at about 38% of winter herd size. We recorded
behavioral responses of reindeer to a person approaching directly on foot or skis during 1992 and again in 2002–2006. Compared to 1992,
flight-initiation distance increased and fewer groups assessed the observer before taking flight during 2002–2006. In winter, when reindeer are
usually comparably more vigilant than in other seasons, flight-initiation distance increased from only 60 m to 115 m and escape distance
decreased from 400 m to 210 m. Neither alert distance, calf carcass weights (23.6 6 0.7 [SE] kg to 22.4 6 0.2 kg), nor reindeer herd size (661
6 73 to 579 6 15) changed during the 15 years of our study. Reindeer appeared to habituate to the observer because they initiated flight at
shorter distances as the number of approaches on the same day increased. In Norefjell–Reinsjøfjell, encounters with a person on foot or skis did
not result in behavioral responses likely to entail substantial energy costs for reindeer; therefore, hunting at current levels appears compatible
with other recreational activities.
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Reimers, Eigil; Dahle, Bjørn; Eftestøl, Sindre; Colman, Jonathan Edward & Gaare, Eldar
(2007).
Effect of a power line on migration and range use of wild reindeer.
Biological Conservation.
ISSN 0006-3207.
134,
p. 484–494.
doi:
10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.034.
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Linear infrastructures such as roads, pipelines and power lines can hinder Rangifer migration and reduce the total amount of area available for foraging. We studied the barrier and aversion effect of a 66 kV power line transecting the range of wild reindeer in North Ottadalen, south central Norway using aerial surveys of reindeer distribution (direct measurement of reindeer use) and lichen measurements (indirect measurement of reindeer use) at varying distances from both sides of the power line. We present a clear definition of the expected barrier and aversion effects, and present specific hypotheses and predictions based on these two terms that are often used unclearly in the literature. The aerial surveys and ground observations showed that reindeer crossed underneath and grazed under and on both sides of the power line during 14 out of the 22 years (63.6%) surveys were conducted over the last 31 years. This behaviour was confirmed by the lichen measurements, indicating a higher use of lichen pastures along ridges close to and under the power line compared to those at increasing distances and up to 3 km from both sides of the power line. This winter grazing pattern probably reflects the topographical channeling of reindeer to the ridges along an 8 km wide topographical corridor encompassing the power line and cannot be attributed to the power line itself. We found that direct measurement data (visual observations such as ours or GPS/telemetry tracking) provide less ambiguous information for testing barrier and aversion effects than indirect measurement data (pasture/ lichen measurements) that are likely influenced by numerous uncontrollable environmental variables independent of reindeer grazing. Our results contrast with recent studies indicating strong barrier and aversion effects of similar power lines for Rangifer migration and grazing behaviour in alpine terrain. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Reimers, Eigil; Miller, Frank L.; Eftestøl, Sindre; Colman, Jonathan Edward & Dahle, Bjørn
(2006).
Flight by feral reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus in response to a directly approaching human on foot or on skis.
Wildlife Biology.
ISSN 0909-6396.
12,
p. 403–413.
doi:
10.2981/FBFRRT%5D2.0.CO;2.
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Grundt, Øystein; Colman, Jonathan & Eftestøl, Sindre
(2018).
Utbygging av småkraft og oppgradering av større anlegg i et reinbeiteområde - Utfordringer og muligheter.
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NVE har fått undersøkt virkninger av utbygging av små vannkraftverk på reinens arealbruk. Formålet har vært å undersøke om reinens arealbruk blir påvirket av forstyrrelser fra anleggsdrift ved bygging av kraftverk og senere i driftstiden på grunn av menneskelig ferdsel eller andre forhold som har gitt
endrede betingelser. Prosjektet har blitt gjennomført gjennom innsamling og analyse av GPS-data fra reinsdyr i Ildgruben reinbeitedistrikt og intervjuer med berørte reineiere. For å ha et bredere erfaringsgrunnlag har det også blitt trukket inn anleggsdrift ved noen større anlegg i analysen
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Flydal, Kjetil; Eftestøl, Sindre; Rannestad, Ole Tobias & Ryvarden, Leif
(2013).
Minimizing damage to the environment when building a wind power plant.
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Tröger, Carolin; Eftestøl, Sindre & Tsegaye, Diress
(2012).
The Strip Transect Method (STM) versus the Plot Sampling Method (PSM); what provides the best data in the least amount of time?
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Eftestøl, Sindre; Colman, Jonathan Edward; Tsegaye, Diress & Flydal, Kjetil
(2012).
Are consecutive GPS positions the best method for testing reindeers’ speed of movement when crossing linear structures?
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Eftestøl, Sindre; Bergmo, Tine; Moe, Stein Ragnar; Flydal, Kjetil & Tsegaye, Diress
(2012).
Avoidance and barrier effects of a 420 kV power line on range use and migration patterns of semi-domestic reindeer.
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Strand, Olav; Colman, Jonathan Edward; Eftestøl, Sindre; Sandström, Per; Skarin, Anna & Thomassen, Jørn
(2017).
Vindkraft og reinsdyr. - En kunnskapssyntese.
Norsk institutt for naturforskning (NINA).
ISSN 9788242629890.
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I denne rapporten har vi sammenfattet 11 ulike undersøkelser som har studert mulige effekter av vindkraftanlegg og kraftledninger på reinsdyr. Effektene av tekniske inngrep og forstyrrelser generelt og effektene av vindkraftanlegg spesielt har vært studert av ulike forskningsmiljøer. Denne innsatsen har ført til at vi i dag har bedre kunnskap om effektene av slike installasjoner på reinsdyr og på reinnæring. I en del tilfeller har ulike prosjekt funnet tilsynelatende motstri-dende resultat. Vi har forsøkt å forklare de ulike resultatene fra de respektive undersøkelsene.
Med dette som bakgrunn konkluderer vi med at et vindkraftanlegg alltid har potensial for å gi negative effekter på miljø og samfunn. Disse påvirkningsfaktorene er oppsummert under. På-virkningsfaktorene må ses i sammenheng og vindkraftanlegget må betraktes som en enhet hvor summen av påvirkningsfaktorene gir samlet effekt. I tillegg må annen belastning i området og de kumulative effektene som påvirker beiteområdene tas med inn i vurderingene av effektene fra et vindkraftanlegg. For å forstå de samla effektene er det viktig at man inkluderer alle årstider i undersøkelsene og at en dekker en tidshorisont som er lang nok til å fange opp miljømessig variasjon og dermed også endringer i anvendelsen av beitene på en tilstrekkelig måte. I tillegg til dette må en også ta i betraktning den menneskelige aktiviteten og inngrepene som finnes i området før et vindkraftanlegg ble etablert.
Veger: Veger medfører økt ferdsel og økt tilgjengelighet. Veger fører til unnvikelse og vil være til hinder for reinsdyras naturlige bevegelser. Unntakene fra dette kan være veger som bygges i områder som allerede har mye infrastruktur eller veger som har svært lite trafikk. Stenging av veger kan være et effektivt avbøtende tiltak, men erfaringer viser at det er vanskelig å opprett-holde slike strenge regimer over tid.
Kraftledninger: Effektene av kraftledninger er fortsatt uklare. Nyere studier med bruk av GPS og data som er samlet inn før og etter utbygging viser at anleggsarbeidene kan føre til relativt sterk unnvikelse, men undersøkelsene underbygger også at kraftledninger i driftsperioden om som-meren og høsten har mindre negative effekter enn tidligere antatt. Hypoteser som forklarer de tilsynelatende variable effektene av kraftledninger med reinens evne til å se i UV-spekteret bør følges opp i detaljerte undersøkelser av denne potensielle mekanismen. Dette er særlig aktuelt mht. effekter om vinteren.
Vindturbiner og rotorer: Ved to av de undersøkte vindkraftanleggene i Sverige og i en ny studie fra Norge har en funnet at reinsdyr har redusert bruk at områder innenfor 3-5 km fra slike anlegg. Samtidig er det gjennomført en studie i Sverige og tre undersøkelser i Norge som ikke har do-kumentert redusert arealbruk i nærområdet til vindkraftanlegg. Vi diskuterer årsaken til dette og gir forklaringer på de avvikende resultatene. Disse avvikene skyldes både topografi, beiteforhold, nærhet til annen infrastruktur og design/gjennomføring av de ulike undersøkelsene. For å styrke kunnskapen om effekter av vindkraftanlegg på reinsdyr er det behov for langsiktige studier. Disse bør ta hensyn til samla effekter av vindkraftanlegg og se på betydningen av den samla belast-ningen innen reinbeiteområdet. Undersøkelsene bør være langsiktige (pågå over flere år) for å gi en forståelse av hvordan mellomårsvariasjonen påvirker arealbruk og andre faktorer. Slike framtidige effektstudier bør også inkludere samfunnsfaglige studier og integrere lokal og kulturell kunnskap.
NØKKELORD : Norge, Sverige, reinsdyr, vindkraft,
kunnskapssyntese, KEY WORDS : Norway, Sweden, reindeer,
windpower, knowledge synthesis
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Colman, Jonathan Edward; Eftestøl, Sindre; Flydal, Kjetil; Rapp, Kåre; Røthe, Gunnlaug & Tsegaye, Diress
(2012).
VindRein-KraftRein - Essand – Vannøy – Fosen – Setesdal aust- og vesthei – Kjøllefjord – Berlevåg og Sørøya. Årsrapport 2011.
Biologisk inst..
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Published
Nov. 3, 2010 3:25 PM
- Last modified
May 29, 2014 9:32 AM
