Mobility Zero Emission Energy Systems (MoZEES) (completed)

• Sæther, Simen Rostad; Pinchasik, Daniel Ruben; Figenbaum, Erik & Karlsson, Hampus (2026). Experiences, Drivers, and barriers of Zero-Emission Trucks: Lessons learned from Norway. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives (TRIP). 37, p. 1–17. doi: 10.1016/j.trip.2026.102019. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article examines the structural conditions, experiences, and decision-making processes of early adopters of zero-emission trucks (ZETs), particularly battery-electric trucks (BETs), in Norway. The study showcases the early stages of the ZET transition, its progress, and implications for future adoption and policy. It combines insights from interviews with early adopters, industry stakeholders, authorities, and leasing and financing actors, alongside quantitative analyses of price and cost premium developments for BETs versus diesel trucks (DTs) from 2021 to 2024. The analysis reveals that BET adoption is primarily driven by larger firms pursuing strategic objectives, reinforced by procurement requirements and customer expectations. Although BET prices have declined, with price ratios falling from up to 3.2 in 2021 to 2.0–2.6 by 2023–2024, BETs remain significantly more expensive than DTs, partially offset by improved vehicle specifications. Profitability depends heavily on operational and charging setup, with depot-based slow charging generally preferred, while many current setups remain unprofitable, particularly for smaller operators. Infrastructure emerges as a critical barrier, as insufficient charging availability at depots and along transport corridors limits operational flexibility, compounded by grid constraints, permitting delays, and site availability. Policy measures including investment subsidies, toll exemptions, and favourable procurement frameworks have been instrumental in enabling early adoption, but stakeholders stress the need for more coordinated and predictable long-term policymaking to meet ambitious climate targets. Broader adoption further depends on increased willingness to pay among transport buyers. The findings provide new insights into experiences, barriers, drivers, and policy considerations for accelerating zero-emission trucking in Norway and beyond.

• Hval, Halvor Høen & Fjellvåg, Helmer (2025). Tracking phase transformations in LiMn1.5+xNi0.5−xO4 by high resolution X-ray diffraction. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. ISSN 2050-7488. 13, p. 41122–41143. doi: 10.1039/d5ta05130d. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The stability and structural aspects of three categories of quenched and annealed LMNO samples, representing different stages in the processing of realistic materials, were studied by synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. The complex Li–Mn–Ni–O energy landscape opens for coexistence of up to five phases under non-equilibrium conditions. These were evaluated by Rietveld refinements, assisted by lattice parameter – composition correlations, which quantitatively confirmed the nominal bulk composition. Mn/Ni cation diffusion occurs at much lower temperatures (400 °C) than previously anticipated, evidenced by Mn/Ni cation ordering in LMNO and by the (back-)formation of rock salt (o-RS) and N-layered impurity phases. Raman data reveals local Mn/Ni ordering well before the formation of domains detectable by X-ray diffraction. The formation of o-RS and Mn/Ni ordering occurs within the same temperature window. We find that o-RS is most likely the cause for oxygen release, without formation of O-vacancies in the parent spinel. A Mn-enriched e-LMNO spinel phase can form at low temperature alongside the ordering process and back-transformation of Ni-rich impurities. Such Mn/Ni segregations are the main cause of Mn(III) formation in LMNO electrodes. The described procedure provides a basis for detailed analysis of practical LMNO materials, emphasizing that the o-RS phase must be considered an integral part of all such analyses. Operando SXRD data further show that ordered and disordered LMNO can be distinguished during cycling, that tetragonal variants form at deep discharge, and that o-RS remains largely undetectable due to its small amount.

• North, Erlend Tiberg; Skautvedt, Casper; Thiagarajan, Abilash Kanish; Michiel, Marco Di; Checchia, Stefano & Koposov, Alexey [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). X-ray Beam Damage Effects in a Lithium-Ion Battery Probed by Spatially Resolved X-ray Diffraction. ACS Energy Letters. 10(10), p. 4930–4932. doi: 10.1021/acsenergylett.5c02442. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The use of synchrotron radiation has become common for probing the structural changes in rechargeable batteries, particularly for operando analysis. Herein, we report the exposure of the electrode to high photon flux during an operando study shutting down electrochemical transformations in the irradiated area of an electrode and causing a gradient of lithiation around the operando beam position. We rationalize such beam damage through radiation induced ionization and, consequently, electrolyte decomposition.

• Jamma, Mustapha; Bujlo, Piotr & Ulleberg, Øystein (2025). Intelligent Energy Management System for Hybrid Fuel Cell/Battery Powered Ships. IEEE transactions on industry applications. ISSN 0093-9994. 61(6), p. 8283–8296. doi: 10.1109/TIA.2025.3571358. Full text in Research Archive
• Skurtveit, Amalie; North, Erlend Tiberg; Park, Heesoo; Chernyshov, Dmitry; Wragg, David Stephen & Koposov, Alexey (2025). Stepwise Structural Relaxation in Battery Active Materials. ACS Materials Letters. 7(1), p. 343–349. doi: 10.1021/acsmaterialslett.4c02058. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Whenever the cycling of Li-ion batteries is stopped, the electrode materials undergo a relaxation process, but the structural changes that occur during relaxation are not well-understood. We have used operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction with a time resolution of 1.24 s to observe the structural changes that occur when the lithiation of graphite and LiFePO4 electrodes are interrupted. Assessing the kinetics of the relaxation processes coupled with molecular dynamics simulations allows us to identify three relaxation stages in graphite. The atomistic origin for the relaxation process within the partially lithiated graphite structure is driven by the reorganization of Li ions into Li clusters. Relaxation in LiFePO4 electrodes is considerably slower than for graphite, but the observed structural changes is also attributed to reorganization of Li ions. These insights highlight the nature of the structural changes that occur during relaxation and the importance of using operando structural studies to avoid misleading conclusions about the reaction mechanisms in battery materials.

• Bakker, Steffen Jaap Skotvoll; Martin, Jonas; Beesten, Egbert Ruben van; Brynildsen, Ingvild Synnøve; Sandvig, Anette & Siqveland, Marit [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). STraM: A strategic network design model for national freight transport decarbonization. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review. ISSN 1366-5545. 197. doi: 10.1016/j.tre.2025.104076. Full text in Research Archive
• Saleem, Usman; Andre, Wilhelms; Sottmann, Jonas; Knuutila, Hanna Katariina & Bandyopadhyay, Sulalit (2025). Direct lithium extraction (DLE) methods and their potential in Li-ion battery recycling. Separation and Purification Technology. ISSN 1383-5866. 361, p. 1–16. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2024.131315. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Lithium (Li) supply from secondary sources (e.g. batteries) will play a critical role in easing the demand from primary production (brines and minerals). To meet ambitious Li recycling targets from electric vehicle (EV) Li-ion batteries (LIBs) imposed by the European Union, it is imperative to develop innovative recycling processes at an accelerated pace. Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) methods have been developed to produce Li from brines. Herein we assess the application of various DLE technologies to extract Li from recycling streams of EV LIBs. Technical aspects and suitable initial solute concentration ranges of several DLE methods namely solvent extraction, ion-exchange resins, sorbents, membranes, and electrochemical ion pumping have been mapped. After this, an optimum pre-treatment route of the EV LIB recycling process has been chosen by estimation of Li recoveries and losses through different combinations of dry and wet crushing followed by froth flotation for anode and cathode separation. Pyrolyzing the whole cells/modules followed by dry crushing and flotation was found to be the most ideal process which can minimize Li losses during pre-treatment. Furthermore, the estimation of concentrations, compositions, and volumes of streams for the downstream hydrometallurgical process is done to identify Li-containing streams where DLE can be used, and suitable technologies have been highlighted. The incorporation of DLE has the potential to minimize Li losses in the recycling process. However, various DLE methods may be required to recover Li in different steps, with nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, selective ion-exchange resins, and solvent extraction being the most promising options.

• Figenbaum, Erik (2024). An Empirical Study of the Policy Processes behind Norway’s BEV-Olution. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 15(37), p. 1–56. doi: 10.3390/wevj15020037. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Norway’s large battery electric vehicle (BEV) market and fleet are not the result of a comprehensive policy plan. Using the multiple streams (MS) framework and document analysis, it was identified that the most important Norwegian BEV policy decisions were made using inadequate policy processes that fall outside of traditional politics. This is contrary to the MS framework postulate that three independent streams of problems, policy solutions, and politics must align to pave the way for new policies. Politicians had limited information about the effects of policies they introduced in this “learning by doing process”. Impact assessments were rarely made. The decision rationale was often not documented. The future market expectation and thus the national budget consequences were low when important policy decisions were made, whereas the political gain was high. The processes were more aligned with traditional politics after 2014. The ambitious ZE vehicle targets for 2025 and the climate policy targets for 2030 locked in incentives, despite rising tax losses. In sum, these developments created the world’s largest per-capita BEV market. To avoid negative issues and keep the BEV policies’ potential to support the BEV transition, politicians should ensure that sufficient knowledge is available when making decisions about future policies. Such decisions should be taken transparently within traditional politics, be properly assessed as with EU policy processes, and regularly reviewed as with the California ZEV mandate process. The required knowledge should be developed in open-access research.

• Pettersen, Torbjørn; Cossar, Emily; Bergstrøm, Trond Harald; Raka, Yash Dharmendra; Lee, Shenae & Zenith, Federico (2024). Simulation study on preventing explosive mixture formation in PEM electrolysers’ water recovery tanks. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. ISSN 0360-3199. 84, p. 1021–1032. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.07.439. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Investigations of safety issues related to the design and operation of high-pressure proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysers have until now mainly focused on the electrolyser stack. The present study focuses on the risk of explosive mixture formation in the water recovery system, which is part of the balance of plant in water electrolyser systems. After a major electrolyser company experienced an unexpected detonation in this system, we analysed their process design as a base case: a low-pressure buffer tank where anodic and cathodic water is mixed with make-up deionised water poses a safety risk because an explosive gas mixture is likely to form there, resulting in severe accidents with potential for escalation. Several retrofit options are explored using dynamic and steady-state simulation models: these options are then evaluated based on their effects on safety, general economics and operation of the plant, in addition to ease of retrofit. The results show preventing the formation of explosive gas mixtures in the water recovery system is achievable in several ways, such as avoiding recycling cathodic water altogether, stripping it of hydrogen, flushing buffer tanks with nitrogen or oxygen, rearranging the balance of plant appropriately, or changing the control algorithms of the system.

• Dai, Tian; Kouoi, Xavier; Reynaud, Marine; Wagemaker, Marnix; Valldor, Björn Martin & Famprikis, Theodosios [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Antiperovskite active materials for metal-ion batteries: Expected advantages, limitations, and perspectives. Energy Storage Materials. ISSN 2405-8297. 68. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2024.103363. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Metal-ion batteries, particularly lithium-ion (Li-ion) and sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, are currently among the most compelling technologies for energy storage. However, the growing demands driven by wide implementation of batteries in multiple applications call for further improvements of energy and power densities. Despite the incredible developments in this field observed over the past decades, the innovation of new active materials for metal-ion batteries has seen only modest progress, with primary focus on the optimization of already existing materials. The recent discovery of cathode materials with antiperovskite structure signals a promising direction for the creation of relatively simple materials geared towards electrochemical energy storage. These materials can be synthesized through relatively simple chemical processes using abundant elements and could offer stable electrochemical performance. Even though the number of reported examples is still limited, the structural flexibility of these materials offers multiple possibilities for tuning the chemical stability, operating voltage and capacity. This perspective provides a summary of the latest advancements in the field of antiperovskite active materials, highlighting both the advantages and the challenges associated with their integration into metal-ion batteries, and suggests possible future research directions towards practical implementation of this promising yet underexplored class of materials.

• Wagner, Nils Peter (2024). Rest in phase transition: Should charging habits in next generation EVs be adapted? Journal of Power Sources Advances. 27. doi: 10.1016/j.powera.2024.100147. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Nickel-rich cathode materials are a popular cathode for high energy lithium ion batteries in the current and next generation of electric vehicles. While nickel-rich cathodes offer high energy density, their cycle-life is compromised due to several factors directly related to their (de)lithiation behavior. At high state of charge the nickel-rich cathode experiences a hexagonal-hexagonal transition which is accompanied by drastic changes in the unit cell parameters. This phenomenon is detrimental for cycle-life of a battery cell. This work elucidates on the effect of storing LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2‖Graphite cells at 95 % state of charge corresponding to the above-mentioned transition for 10 h every six cycles. The results are compared to cells cycled without a rest at high state of charge and cells cycled to 100 % state of charge. Analysis of the obtained cycling data shows that resting lithium ion cells based nickel-rich cathode based cells is detrimental leading to higher impedance growth and capacity decay than cycling to 100 % state of charge.

• Stokes-Rodriguez, Killian; Jayasayee, Kaushik; Hanetho, Sidsel Meli; Kvello, Jannicke Hatlø; Molesworth, Peter Patrick & Dahl, Øystein [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Comparative Study of High Voltage Spinel∥Lithium Titanate Lithium-ion Batteries in Ethylene Carbonate Free Electrolytes. Batteries & Supercaps. doi: 10.1002/batt.202400457. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A persistent obstacle towards the realization of high voltage cathodes is electrolyte instability where oxidation and transition metal dissolution manifest in rapid capacity failure with both issues connected to the presence of ethylene carbonate in the electrolyte. Here, alternative electrolyte co-solvents are investigated and compared, where the cyclic carbonate is replaced with sulfones ethyl methyl sulfone (EMS) and tetra methylene sulfone (TMS) and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC). The best full cell performance was observed for cells cycled in a FEC/EMC (3/7) and FEC/EMC (1/1) electrolytes which exhibited 84–85 % capacity retention after 500 cycles. TMS/EMC (3/7), was determined to be the best performing sulfone electrolyte and maintained 71 % capacity after 500 cycles. Post-mortem XPS analysis indicated different film forming mechanisms for the respective co-solvent. A thicker cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) on the LNMO was observed for the FEC containing electrolytes (relative to when TMS was used as the co-solvent) indicating more effective passivation of the reactive cathode surface which correlated well with the enhanced cycling stability observed. For LTO, more evidence of transition metal migration and a thicker solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer was observed for the sulfone electrolyte suggesting more parasitic anode-electrolyte interactions and an inability to mitigate Mn2+/Ni2+ crosstalk.

• Thøgersen, Rasmus Vester; Hval, Halvor Høen & Fjellvåg, Helmer (2024). Elucidation of the Reaction Mechanisms in Antifluorite-Type Li<inf>5+x</inf>Fe<inf>1-x</inf>Co<inf>x</inf>O<inf>4</inf> Positive Electrodes for Li-Ion Batteries. Batteries & Supercaps. doi: 10.1002/batt.202400348. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Li-rich antifluorite-type oxides Li5FeO4, Li5.5Fe0.5Co0.5O4 and Li6CoO4 have been investigated as positive electrode materials for Li-ion batteries in a combined operando XANES and XRD experiment. All materials show a similar two-step behaviour upon initial charge (termed Stage I and Stage II), and reversibility of subsequent cycling depends upon whether the initial charge cycle is terminated following Stage I or allowed to proceed through Stage II. By tracking the energetic evolution of the XANES pre-edge feature present in both Fe and Co K-edge spectra, as well as the evolution of X-ray diffractograms during charge and discharge, we correlate the changes in chemical coordination and oxidation states in both species and the structural changes to the electrochemical potential profile, and infer the role of anionic redox processes.

• Hancke, Ragnhild; Bujlo, Piotr; Holm, Thomas & Ulleberg, Øystein (2024). High-pressure PEM water electrolyser performance up to 180 bar differential pressure. Journal of Power Sources. ISSN 0378-7753. 601. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.234271. Full text in Research Archive
• Das, Supti; Brennhagen, Anders; Cavallo, Carmen; Killi, Veronica Anne-Line Kathrine; Jensen, Ingvild Julie Thue & Thøgersen, Annett [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2024). Directing SEI formation on Si-based electrodes using atomic layer deposition. Chemical Communications. ISSN 1359-7345. 60(100), p. 15011–15014. doi: 10.1039/d4cc05458j. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The design of artificial solid eletroctrolyte interphase is an important task to minimize capacity losses in Li-ion batteries. Herein, TiO2 created through atomic layer deposition was used as an artificial SEI on Si nanoparticles. Such coating led to substantial improvement of cycling stability when evaluated with FEC-free electrolyte.

• Martin, Jonas; Golab, Antonia; Durakovic, Goran; Zwickl-Bernhard, Sebastian; Auer, Hans & Neumann, Anne Franziska (2024). Modeling cost-optimal fuel choices for truck, ship, and airplane fleets: The impact of sustainability commitments. Energy. ISSN 0360-5442. 308. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2024.132882. Full text in Research Archive
• Wind, Julia; Ulvestad, Asbjørn; Abdelhamid, Muhammad & Mæhlen, Jan Petter (2024). Cellpy – an open-source library for processing and analysis of battery testing data. Journal of Open Source Software (JOSS). 9(97). doi: 10.21105/joss.06236. Full text in Research Archive
• Park, Heesoo; Wragg, David Stephen & Koposov, Alexey (2024). Replica exchange molecular dynamics for Li-intercalation in graphite: a new solution for an old problem. Chemical Science. ISSN 2041-6520. doi: 10.1039/d3sc06107h. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Li intercalation and graphite stacking have been extensively studied because of the importance of graphite in commercial Li-ion batteries. Despite this attention, there are still questions about the atomistic structures of the intermediate states that exist during lithiation, especially when phase dynamics cause a disordered Li distribution. The Li migration event (diffusion coefficient of 10−5 nm2 ns−1) makes it difficult to explore the various Li-intercalation configurations in conventional molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with an affordable simulation timescale. To overcome these limitations, we conducted a comprehensive study using replica-exchange molecular dynamics (REMD) in combination with the ReaxFF force field. This approach allowed us to study the behavior of Li-intercalated graphite from any starting arrangement of Li at any value of x in LixC6. Our focus was on analyzing the energetic favorability differences between the relaxed structures. We rationalized the trends in formation energy on the basis of observed structural features, identifying three main structural features that cooperatively control Li rearrangement in graphite: Li distribution, graphite stacking mode and gallery height (graphene layer spacing). We also observed a tendency for clustering of Li, which could lead to dynamic local structures that approximate the staging models used to explain intercalation into graphite.

• Yang, Danan; Fortin, Patrick Joshua; Garg, Himani & Andersson, Martin (2024). The Influence of bipolar plate wettability on performance and durability of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. ISSN 0360-3199. 95, p. 1284–1298. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.08.510. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A significant surface wettability transition from hydrophobicity to hydrophilicity after long-term operation is observed in graphite bipolar plates of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Extensive in-situ electrochemical characterization was performed to investigate the impact of bipolar plate wettability on the performance and durability of two PEMFCs (named “New cell” and “Old cell”), which use the same membrane electrode assemblies but have new and aged bipolar plates, respectively. Two-phase flow simulations are conducted to analyze water transport within bipolar plate channels with different wettabilities, utilizing the volume of fluid method. The Old cell is found to have reduced performance and accelerated degradation compared to the New cell. The degradation is attributed to increased liquid water at the cathode, which increases mass transport resistance by obstructing active catalyst sites. Simulations further demonstrated that as the hydrophobicity of the channel surface decreases, liquid water flow transitions from discrete droplet flow to semi-slug/film flow, and ultimately to slug flow. This transition results in greater water accumulation in hydrophilic channels, leading to higher pressure drops, intensified pressure oscillations, and more frequent sharp pressure drop peaks. These effects amplify the risk of cathode flooding, relating to experimentally observed performance losses and accelerated degradation in the Old cell.

• Norby, Truls (2024). Protonic conduction on oxide surfaces - role and applications in electrochemical energy conversion. Progress in Energy. 6, p. 043002–043002. doi: 10.1088/2516-1083/ad6c9f. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Protonic conduction on surfaces of oxides has over the last two decades drawn attention for its possible utilisation in electrolytes for energy conversion at low temperatures and for its roles in enhancement of catalytic activity. This has led to deeper investigation and increased understanding of the phenomenon and development of quantifiable models. Along with this has emerged apparent demonstrations of use of such conduction in low-drain fuel cells as well as acknowledgement of the role of surface protonic conduction in electrodes for solid-state electrochemical and photoelectrochemical cells. Here is provided a brief review and elaboration of the fundamentals of the interaction of water and hydrogen with oxide surfaces, and models for the resulting protonic conduction in chemisorbed and physisorbed layers. We finally discuss aspects of surface protonic conduction in a range of applications, including sensors, catalysis, and electrochemical and photoelectrochemical energy conversion.

• Fossum, Hannibal Eie; Åkervik, Espen; Henriksen, Mathias & Bjerketvedt, Dag (2024). Numerical simulation of hydrogen dispersion in an open-ended rectangular channel. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. ISSN 0360-3199. 92. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.10.038. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this work, large-eddy simulations of hydrogen dispersion from turbulent subsonic hydrogen-gas emissions in a 5.8 × 0.9 × 0.8 m open-ended channel are described. Such numerical modeling of hydrogen-related processes can provide new insights into the safety aspects of hydrogen, an increasingly more common energy carrier, particularly related to explosion hazards. Ten simulations, with jet mass flow rates ranging from 0.08 g/s to 1.27 g/s, have been simulated using the open-source OpenFOAM® 10 suite. The predicted concentrations in the channel are compared to corresponding experimental data, generally showing good agreement. Two distinct dispersion regimes are observed from the numerical data; a strongly stratified “filling box” regime is found for hydrogen mass flowsg/s, whereas a more homogenized “fading box” regime emerges for higher mass flows. Based on the local Froude number in the channel, a novel model for the momentum length scale of the hydrogen jet is proposed, applicable to downward, strongly buoyant (i.e., non-Boussinesq) jets. It is demonstrated that the ratio of this length scale to the vertical length scale of the geometry can be used to predict the dispersion regime, which may benefit simplified predictive models for hydrogen concentrations and, consequently, ignition risks.

• Tolchard, Julian R; Vullum, Per Erik; Arstad, Bjørnar & Wagner, Nils Peter (2023). New insights into orthophosphoric acid assisted rapid aqueous processing of NMC622 cathodes. RSC Sustainability. 1(2), p. 378–387. doi: 10.1039/D3SU00031A. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The use of orthophosphoric acid to stabilize aqueous processing of high nickel NMC622 electrodes was assessed under rapid processing conditions, in which the active material powder was in suspension for less than 1 hour. It was found, as previously reported, that corrosion of the aluminum current-collector was suppressed, and capacity retention greatly improved relative to aqueous-processed material without orthophosphoric acid addition. The rapid processing conditions led to incomplete reaction of the orthophosphoric acid with the surface of the electrode active material however, with concomitant formation of orthophosphate precipitates upon drying. Reaction of these with organic carbonate electrolytes resulted in rapid cell death typically occurring between 50 and 100 cycles, characterized by formation of a thick degradation film on the NMC622 cathode. Washing with ethanol was found to remove the components responsible for the degradation process, yielding an electrode that demonstrated almost 400 cycles with 78% capacity retention. It is concluded that whilst the addition of orthophosphoric acid aids aqueous processing of NMC materials, close attention must be paid to the quantities and reaction times used.

• Martin, Jonas; Neumann, Anne Franziska & Ødegård, Anders (2023). Renewable hydrogen and synthetic fuels versus fossil fuels for trucking, shipping and aviation: A holistic cost model. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. ISSN 1364-0321. 186. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113637. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Potential carbon neutrality of the global trucking, shipping and aviation sectors by 2050 could be achieved by substituting fossil fuels with renewable hydrogen and synthetic fuels. To investigate the economic impact of fuel substitution over time, a holistic cost model is developed and applied to three case studies in Norway, an early adopter of carbon-neutral freight transport. The model covers the value chains from local electricity and fuel production (hydrogen, ammonia, Fischer–Tropsch e-fuel) to fuel consumption for long-haul trucking, short-sea shipping and mid-haul aviation. The estimates are internally consistent and allow cross-mode and cross-fuel comparisons that set this work apart from previous studies more narrowly focused on a given transport mode or fuel. The model contains 150 techno-economic parameters to identify which components along the value chains drive levelized costs. This paper finds a cost reduction potential for renewable fuels of 41% to 68% until 2050, but carbon-neutral transport will suffer asymmetric cost disadvantages. Fuel substitution is most expensive in short-sea shipping, followed by mid-haul aviation and long-haul trucking. Cost developments of electricity, direct air capture of carbon, vehicle expenses, and fuel-related payload losses are significant drivers.

• Gobena, Hana; Lai, Samson Yuxiu; Koposov, Alexey; Mæhlen, Jan Petter; Ghamouss, Fouad & Lemordant, Daniel (2023). Cycling performance of silicon-carbon composite anodes enhanced through phosphate surface treatment. Battery Energy. 2(3). doi: 10.1002/bte2.20220062. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Silicon (Si)‐based anodes have long been viewed as the next promising solution to improve the performance of modern lithium‐ion batteries. However, the poor cycling stability of Si‐based anodes impedes their application and calls for solutions for further improvements. In the present work, the incorporation of phosphate groups on the surface of an amorphous Si‐carbon composite (a‐Si/C) has been achieved by a hydrothermal reaction using phosphoric acid and sodium dihydrogen phosphate at pH = 2. Different levels of the surface P‐doping have been realized using reaction times (2, 4, and 8 h) at two different phosphate concentrations. The presence of phosphate groups on the particle's surface has been confirmed by energy‐dispersive X‐ray, infrared, and Raman spectroscopy. The cycling stability of the P‐treated a‐Si/C composites has been significantly improved when using lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide as a salt in ether‐based solvents mixture compared to a conventional electrolyte for Si‐based anodes (LiPF 6 in carbonate‐based solvents). Coulombic efficiencies as high as 99% have been reached after five charge/discharge cycles for almost all phosphate‐treated materials. The 4 h P‐treated a‐Si/C composite electrode exhibits the best reversible capacity of 1598 mAh g −1 after 200 cycles demonstrated in half‐cells using an ether‐based electrolyte.

• Wragg, David Stephen; Skautvedt, Casper; Brennhagen, Anders; Geiss, Carina; Checchia, Stefano & Koposov, Alexey (2023). Tracking Lithiation of Si-Based Anodes in Real Time by Total Scattering Computed Tomography. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. ISSN 1932-7447. 127(48), p. 23149–23155. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c06414. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The existing set of characterization tools does not permit a full description of the three-dimensional (3D) structure and operating mechanisms of amorphous, low-scattering alloying active materials in metal-ion batteries. In this article, we describe and demonstrate a new methodology for analysis of this class of materials based on total scattering computed tomography. Using silicon (Si)-based anodes as a testing platform, we can not only visualize the chemical changes taking place in the electrodes during lithiation but also create a 3D mapping of the electrode components including amorphous active and inactive materials. The mapping was used to select a region of interest in the electrode from which the best possible operando pair distribution function (PDF) of the active material could be obtained. Finally, we deployed differential analysis to highlight the small but systematic changes in the PDF during lithiation, revealing subtle structural transformations at the atomic scale.

• Stadlerova, Sarka; Jena, Sanjay Dominik & Schütz, Peter (2023). Using Lagrangian relaxation to locate hydrogen production facilities under uncertain demand: a case study from Norway. Computational Management Science. ISSN 1619-697X. 20(1). doi: 10.1007/s10287-023-00445-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrogen is considered a solution to decarbonize the transportation sector, an important step to meet the requirements of the Paris agreement. Even though hydrogen demand is expected to increase over the next years, the exact demand level over time remains a main source of uncertainty. We study the problem of where and when to locate hydrogen production plants to satisfy uncertain future customer demand. We formulate our problem as a two-stage stochastic multi-period facility location and capacity expansion problem. The first-stage decisions are related to the location and initial capacity of the production plants and have to be taken before customer demand is known. They involve selecting a modular capacity with a piecewise linear, convex short-term cost function for the chosen capacity level. In the second stage, decisions regarding capacity expansion and demand allocation are taken. Given the complexity of the formulation, we solve the problem using a Lagrangian decomposition heuristic. Our method is capable of finding solutions of sufficiently high quality within a few hours, even for instances too large for commercial solvers. We apply our model to a case from Norway and design the corresponding hydrogen infrastructure for the transportation sector.

• Østli, Elise Ramleth; Mathew, Alma; Tolchard, Julian R; Brandell, Daniel; Svensson, Ann Mari & Selbach, Sverre Magnus [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Stabilizing the Cathode Interphase of LNMO using an Ionic-liquid based Electrolyte. Batteries & Supercaps. 6(7). doi: 10.1002/batt.202300085. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The ionic liquid (IL)-based electrolyte comprising 1.2 M lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) in N-propyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (PYR13FSI) (ILE) has been evaluated as a suitable system for the high-voltage cathode material LiNi0.5−xMn1.5+xO4 (LNMO) when cycled vs. graphite anodes. The oxidative stability of the ILE was evaluated by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and synthetic charge-discharge profile voltammetry (SCPV) and was found to exceed that of state-of-the-art 1 M LiPF6 in 1 : 1 ethylene carbonate (EC) : diethylcarbonate (DEC) (LP40). Improved cycling performance both at 20 °C and 45 °C was found for LNMO||graphite full cells with the IL electrolyte. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis showed that robust and predominantly inorganic surface layers were formed on the LNMO cathode using the ILE, which stabilized the electrode. Although the high viscosity of the ILE limits the rate performance at 20 °C, this ILE is a promising alternative electrolyte for use in lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) with high-voltage cathodes such as LNMO, especially for use at elevated temperatures.

• Hua, Weicheng; Nylund, Inger-Emma; Cova, Federico Hector; Svensson, Ann Mari & Blanco, Maria Valeria (2023). Insights on microstructural evolution and capacity fade on diatom SiO2 anodes for lithium-ion batteries. Scientific Reports. 13(1). doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-47355-7. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  is a promising material for developing high-capacity anodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, microstructural changes of anodes at the particle and electrode level upon prolonged cycling remains unclear. In this work, the causes leading to capacity fade on anodes were investigated and simple strategies to attenuate anode degradation were explored. Nanostructured from diatomaceous earth was integrated into anodes containing different quantities of conductive carbon in the form of either a conductive additive or a nanometric coating layer. Galvanostatic cycling was conducted for 200 cycles and distinctive trends on capacity fade were identified. A thorough analysis of the anodes at selected cycle numbers was performed using a toolset of characterization techniques, including electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, FIB-SEM cross-sectional analysis and TEM inspections. Significant fragmentation of particles surface and formation of filigree structures upon cycling are reported for the first time. Morphological changes are accompanied by an increase in impedance and a loss of electroactive surface area. Carbon-coating is found to restrict particle fracture and to increase capacity retention to 66%, compared to 47% for uncoated samples after 200 cycles. Results provide valuable insights to improve cycling stability of anodes for next-generation LIBs.

• Martin, Jonas; Dimanchev, Emil & Neumann, Anne Franziska (2023). Carbon abatement costs for renewable fuels in hard-to-abate transport sectors. Advances in Applied Energy. 12. doi: 10.1016/j.adapen.2023.100156. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Renewable fuels can help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. To inform planning decisions, this paper estimates carbon abatement costs of replacing fossil fuels with renewable hydrogen, ammonia, or Fischer–Tropsch e-fuel in Norwegian freight transport across long-haul trucking, short-sea shipping, and medium-haul aviation. We do this by applying a holistic cost model of renewable fuel value chains. We compare abatement costs across transport sectors and analyze how policy interventions along the value chains – such as carbon pricing, subsidies, and de-risking policies – impact carbon abatement costs. We estimate abatement costs of 793–1,598 €/tCO2 in 2020 and -11–675 €/tCO2 in 2050, depending on the electricity source, transport sector, and type of fuel. A 1 €/kg reduction in the cost of hydrogen - e.g. through a subsidy - lowers present-day carbon abatement cost by 95 €/tCO2 for hydrogen-powered trucking, 133 €/tCO2 for e-fuel-powered shipping, and 143 €/tCO2 for e-fuel-powered aviation. We further show that reductions in the weighted average cost of capital materially decrease abatement cost, particularly for renewable hydrogen due to its relative capital intensity.

• Stadlerova, Sarka; Schütz, Peter & Tomasgard, Asgeir (2023). Multi-period facility location and capacity expansion with modular capacities and convex short-term costs. Computers & Operations Research. ISSN 0305-0548. 163. doi: 10.1016/j.cor.2023.106395. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this paper, we consider a multi-period facility location problem with capacity expansion motivated by the real-world problem of establishing hydrogen production infrastructure in Norway. The problem is formulated using modular capacities that capture economies of scale in production costs. The costs of opening a facility are represented by concave long-term costs, while the production costs of each capacity level are given by convex short-term costs. In our model, we allow only one expansion during the planning horizon, and have to observe limits on minimum production quantities. The objective is to minimize the sum of investment, expansion, production, and distribution costs while satisfying customer demand. To solve the problem we implement a solution method based on Lagrangian relaxation. The lower bound is calculated using a dynamic programming approach. To obtain an upper bound solution, we develop a greedy heuristic that converts the solution to the Lagrangian dual into a feasible solution. The approach is tested on different problem instances based on real-world data. The results show that our solution method based on Lagrangian relaxation outperforms Gurobi in terms of run time for all tested instances. Our Lagrangian based approach also always finds good or even near-optimal solutions, whereas Gurobi fails to find feasible solutions for some of the larger instances.

• Park, Heesoo; Duin, Adri C. T. van & Koposov, Alexey (2023). Toward Atomistic Understanding of Materials with the Conversion–Alloying Mechanism in Li-Ion Batteries. Chemistry of Materials. ISSN 0897-4756. 35(7), p. 2835–2845. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c03603. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The need for practical anodes for rechargeable batteries calls for new materials with improved storage capacity and cycling stability compared to the materials of today. Materials capable of alloying with alkali metals have been long viewed as a promising pathway to address this challenge. Meanwhile, severe drawbacks associated with the use of such materials led to the development of suitable alternatives, in which governing the reaction mechanism in a battery combines conversion and alloying reactions. These materials feature a high storage capacity and long-term stability during electrochemical cycling. However, the development of these materials is impeded by a lack of fundamental structural understanding due to the complexity of the chemical transformations taking place during battery cycling. Furthermore, amorphization, which is prevalent in these materials, also severely limits the conventional methods of characterization. In the present work, we propose a computational methodology for understanding the structure and reaction mechanism of these conversion–alloying materials by using amorphous substoichiometric silicon nitride as a model system. The developed ReaxFF parameter set allowed exploring the atomistic structure of this material and verify the resulting models through a comparison of calculated and experimentally obtained pair distribution functions (PDFs). The developed methodology also allowed exploring the structural changes occurring during lithiation and delithiation, i.e., operation mechanism in a battery. The analysis of the atomistic structure demonstrates that initial lithiation results in the formation of a Si network, which later participates in further lithiation process. Delithiation also influences the evolution of the amorphous Si network facilitating separation of nitrogen-rich and Si-rich regions and, therefore, confirming the conversion mechanism proposed earlier. Furthermore, the proposed approach allows modeling not only changes at the atomistic scale but also predicting the experimental PDF at different stages of cycling which allows experimentally verifying the outcome of modeling.

• Huld, Frederik Thorbjørn; Mæhlen, Jan Petter; Keller, Caroline; Lai, Samson Yuxiu; Eleri, Obinna Egwu & Koposov, Alexey [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Revealing Silicon’s Delithiation Behaviour through Empirical Analysis of Galvanostatic Charge–Discharge Curves. Batteries. 9(5). doi: 10.3390/batteries9050251. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) behaviour of silicon (Si) is known to depend strongly on morphology, cycling conditions and electrochemical environment. One common method for analysing GCD curves is through differential capacity, but the data processing required necessarily degrades the results. Here we present a method of extracting empirical information from the delithiation step in GCD data for Si at C-rates above equilibrium conditions. We find that the function is able to quickly and accurately determine the best fit to historical half-cell data on amorphous Si nanowires and thin films, and analysis of the results reveals that the function is capable of distinguishing the capacity contributions from the Li3.5Si and Li2Si phases to the total capacity. The method can also pick up small differences in the phase behaviour of the different samples, making it a powerful technique for further analysis of Si data from the literature. The method was also used for predicting the size of the reservoir effect (the apparent amount of Li remaining in the electrode), making it a useful technique for quickly determining voltage slippage and related phenomena. This work is presented as a starting point for more in-depth empirical analysis of Si GCD data.

• Norby, Truls; Sun, Xinwei & Vøllestad, Einar (2023). A brick layer model for surface conduction in porous ceramics. Solid State Ionics. ISSN 0167-2738. 398. doi: 10.1016/j.ssi.2023.116269. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We provide herein a review and in-depth derivation and discussion of a surface brick layer model (SBLM) that scales the conductance of a surface layer – such as protonic conductance in adsorbed water – and the macroscopic conductivity for the porous material. The model is derived on basis of grains and pores of similar sizes and will be most realistic for porous compacts or loosely sintered ceramics of isotropic grains, although it still provides order-of-magnitude guidance also for textured or less porous materials. Brief comparison is made with other relevant models and literature. The model is illustrated and evaluated with data primarily from measurements of surface protonic conduction in porous nanoscopic ceramic oxides.

• Pollen, Harald Norrud; Nylund, Inger-Emma; Dahl, Øystein; Svensson, Ann Mari; Brandell, Daniel & Younesi, Reza [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Interphase Engineering of LiNi0.88Mn0.06Co0.06O2 Cathodes Using Octadecyl Phosphonic Acid Coupling Agents. ACS Applied Energy Materials. 6(23), p. 12032–12042. doi: 10.1021/acsaem.3c02275. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Ni-rich layered oxides are proven high-energy cathode materials for Li-ion batteries, but their characteristic short cycle life remains a challenge for implementation on a wider scale. The surface reactivity of Ni-rich layered oxides is the driving force for several capacity fading mechanisms, and a common strategy to combat these issues is to apply a protective surface coating. In this work, LiNi0.88Mn0.06Co0.06O2 (NMC) is surface-modified using octadecyl phosphonic acid (OPA) as a coupling agent through a wet-chemical process. Post-treatments of the coated NMC material at 350 and 450 °C in an O2 atmosphere are also evaluated. Physical characterization confirms the presence of a surface coating and confirms that the surface modification processing has a negligible effect on the bulk material structure. The bare NMC material shows an initial discharge capacity of 199 mAh/g in NMC||LTO cells. The coated NMC material shows a slightly lower initial discharge capacity of 188 mAh/g, but the capacity retention after 210 cycles improves from 86 to 95%. The coated NMC material shows higher discharge capacities than the bare NMC material beyond cycle 75. Postmortem characterizations indicate that the surface reactivity is reduced by the OPA coating as less fluorinated byproducts are formed. The high-temperature post-treatments of the coated NMC material change the surface chemistry but do not improve the electrochemical performance.

• Ellingsen, Linda Ager-Wick; Thorne, Rebecca Jayne; Wind, Julia; Figenbaum, Erik; Romare, Mia & Nordelöf, Anders (2022). Life cycle assessment of battery electric buses + Errata of 24. January 2023. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. ISSN 1361-9209. 112(November 2022), p. 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.trd.2022.103498. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Different Li-ion battery technologies and sizes are used in battery electric buses (BEBs), but little is known about the environmental effect of various battery technology and sizing alternatives. In a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of seven BEBs, we consider three battery technologies combined with relevant pack sizes to evaluate the size and range effect. The environmental performance of the BEBs was assessed over the typical length of a bus tender of 10 years as well as an extended lifetime of 20 years. Across six environmental impact categories we found that the size and range effect depends to a large extent on the performance of the battery technology and that a smaller battery size of the same technology is not necessarily environmentally preferable. Furthermore, extending the BEB lifetime from 10 to 20 years changes the environmental performance as well as relative contributions to environmental impact potentials for the various BEB alternatives.

View all works in NVA

• Ulleberg, Øystein & Hancke, Ragnhild (2025). Hurtigbåt på hydrogen kan være en god løsning for lange og tunge hurtigbåtsamband - Norsk Hydrogenforum. [Internet]. Norsk Hydrogenforum. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Institutt for energiteknikk (IFE) har lang og bred erfaring med forskning på hydrogendrevne hurtigbåter, som kan gi Norge to fordeler på én gang: utslippsfri transport og mulig eksportprodukt. NHF sendte beskjeden videre til stortingspolitikerne under høring om statsbudsjettet for 2026.

• Norby, Truls; Sun, Xinwei & Wang, Luyang (2024). Surface protonics - Protonic conduction in adsorbed water on oxide surfaces. Full text in Research Archive
• Wind, Julia; Ostrander, John; Shearing, Paul Robert; Mæhlen, Jan Petter & Vie, Preben Joakim Svela (2024). A Direct Comparison of a Power and an Energy-optimized Li-ion Pouch Cell: Characterization, Ageing and Modelling. Full text in Research Archive
• Seland, Frode; Zamanizadeh, Hamid Reza; Barnett, Alejandro Oyarce; Sunde, Svein & Pollet, Bruno (2024). Low Cost Electrodes for Water Electrolysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Svensson, Ann Mari (2024). Batterier – kunnskapsgrunnlag og industrielle muligheter. Full text in Research Archive
• Svensson, Ann Mari; Nylund, Inger-Emma; Langli, Helene Lillevestre; Hamonnet, Johan Jean-Claude Maurice; Kemeny, Martin & Blanco, Maria Valeria [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2024). Strategies for replacing LiPF6 salt by LiFSI for various cathodes chemistries, LiFePO4, LiNixMnyCozO2 and LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4. Full text in Research Archive
• Svensson, Ann Mari (2024). Electrochemistry of Battery Materials. Full text in Research Archive
• Skurtveit, Amalie; North, Erlend Tiberg; Park, Heesoo; Chernyshov, Dmitry; Wragg, David Stephen & Koposov, Alexey (2024). Elucidating relaxation mechanisms in Li-ion batteries through operando X-ray diffraction: Spontaneous Li-ion clustering as a structural origin of relaxation in battery electrodes. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulvestad, Asbjørn & Mæhlen, Jan Petter (2024). Scalable micron-sized amorphous silicon nitride for Li-ion battery anode. Full text in Research Archive
• Fagerström, Jonathan; Myhre, Stine Fleischer; Vie, Preben Joakim Svela; Wind, Julia; Mæhlen, Jan Petter & Bryne, Bjørn [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Battery Lifetime Estimations for Freight Train on Partially Electrified Railway Route. Full text in Research Archive
• Wind, Julia; Mæhlen, Jan Petter & Ulvestad, Asbjørn (2024). Cellpy – An Open-Source Python Library for Processing and Analysis of Battery Testing Data. Full text in Research Archive
• Norby, Truls; Sun, Xinwei & Wang, Luyang (2024). Surface protonic conduction in porous oxides. Full text in Research Archive
• Zenith, Federico; Pettersen, Torbjørn; Cossar, Emily; Bergstrøm, Trond Harald; Raka, Yash Dharmendra & Lee, Shenae (2024). Prevention of explosive mixtures in electrolyser plants' water recovery tanks. Full text in Research Archive
• Lee, Shenae; Pettersen, Torbjørn; Cossar, Emily; Bergstrøm, Trond Harald; Raka, Yash Dharmendra & Zenith, Federico (2024). Preventing explosive mixture formation in PEM electrolysers’ water recovery tanks. Full text in Research Archive
• Norby, Truls (2024). Diffusion and conduction over two sites. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A number of crystalline solid electrolytes are based on inherent partial occupancy and disorder rather than aliovalent substitution. Defects and transport can then normally be treated along an extension of the Kröger-Vink notation [1]. However, in some cases, the charge carrying ion diffuses by subsequent jumps through two different partially occupied and disordered sites, as is the case for oxide ions in the complex perovskite-related Ba3MoNbO8.5 (BMN) and Li ions in the cubic garnet polymorph of Li7La3Zr4O12 (LLZO). There is to my knowledge no general treatise of diffusion and conduction in such cases, and specifically there is no adequate defect chemistry for neither BMN nor LLZO. Here, I provide relevant general defect chemical models and show how the transport equations can be derived from the defect chemical reaction rate constants. The result allows prediction of preexponential factors and understanding activation enthalpies, as will be illustrated for BMN and LLZO, and form basis for interpretation of effects of aliovalent doping and nonstoichiometry. [1] T. Norby “A Kröger-Vink-compatible notation for defects in inherently defective sublattices”, J. Korean Ceram. Soc., 47 [1] (2010) 19-25.

• Espegren, Kari Aamodt (2024). Avkarbonisering av transport i Norge. Hvor mye strøm trenger vi til transport? Går utviklingen fort nok? Full text in Research Archive
• Norby, Truls & Sun, Xinwei (2024). Surface protonics of CeO2. Full text in Research Archive
• Espegren, Kari Aamodt (2024). Transition scenarios for the Norwegian Transport Sector. Full text in Research Archive
• Wind, Julia; Vie, Preben Joakim Svela; Ostrander, John & Mæhlen, Jan Petter (2024). A DIRECT COMPARISON OF A POWER AND AN ENERGY-OPTIMIZED LI-ION POUCH CELL: CHARACTERIZATION, AGEING AND MODELLING. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein; Holm, Thomas; Bujlo, Piotr & Hancke, Ragnhild (2024). High-Pressure PEM Water Electrolysis: Design & Operation of a 180 bar System. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) is a key technology for conversion of variable renewable energy to hydrogen. PEM water electrolyzers can cover a wide operating range and have a quick response to variable power (dynamic operation). They can also operate at high current densities and pressures. The possibility to operate at high pressures is important since this can reduce the energy demand and costs related to downstream mechanical hydrogen compression. A high-pressure experimental PEMWE laboratory system designed and built by Institute for Energy Technology has been commissioned and used for testing and characterization of a 180 bar differential pressure prototype stack (reference technology from Nel, USA). The electrolyser stack has been characterized with respect to electrochemical performance, net hydrogen production rate, and water crossover, while the overall PEMWE system has been tested with respect to its operability and performance of the thermal- and gas management systems. The results from the experimental test campaigns show that the stack voltage increase during pressurization from 5 to 30 bar is 30 % smaller than expected, but that further pressurization reduces the performance. Further analyses and theoretical studies confirm that high pressure PEMWE have a higher energy consumption than state-of-the-art electrolyser systems with mechanical compressors. However, detailed techno-economic analyses show there can be a business case for high-pressure PEMWE if the trade-off between stack efficiency and system efficiency is well-balanced. Results from the design and operation of the PEMWE System Laboratory at IFE and the 180 bar stack tests will be presented.

• Ulleberg, Øystein (2024). Hydrogen and Fuel Cells for Maritime Applications. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2024). Interdisciplinary R&D for the Green Energy Transition – Strategies and Experiences from Norway and Europe. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This inaugural seminar appears as part of the newly established EECMS Colloquium Series, which aims to create a platform for dialogue and exploration of potential collaborations in key areas, including Industry 5.0, Advanced Manufacturing, Quantum Computing, Quantum Communications, Next-Generation Telecommunications, energy transition, cybersecurity, AI/Machine Learning, and Data Science. The goal is to facilitate knowledge exchange, build partnerships with industries, promote collaborative research, and expand our knowledge horizon. This inaugural lecture explores the key aspects of the green energy transition, with a focus on the advancements in zero emission transport systems and renewable energy and hydrogen technologies. I will use my experiences from MoZEES (2017-2024) and HYDROGENi (2023-2030), two national Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FMEs), to provide an overview of Norway's efforts in transitioning to a low-carbon future and to give some insights into the broader European context. The talk will be structured into three main sections: 1. Green Energy Transition in Norway and Europe: This section will offer a broad overview of the strategies, challenges, and opportunities in the green energy transition across Norway and Europe. It will highlight the key drivers of change and the collaborative efforts that are shaping the future of energy and transport systems 2. Zero Emission Transport Systems: Focusing on innovations in zero emission transport, this section will delve into the interdisciplinary research and development efforts that are driving advancements in road, rail, and maritime transport. The discussion will encompass a wide range of technologies (e.g., batteries and fuel cells) and approaches aimed at achieving sustainable mobility. 3. Renewable Energy Systems: This section will address the scientific and technical aspects of renewable energy systems, emphasizing the integration of various renewable energy sources and technologies (e.g., solar, wind, and water electrolysis). I will present examples of multi-disciplinary research, including modelling and analysis techniques that involve physics, electrical engineering, mathematics, and computing science. The presentation is designed to appeal to a diverse audience across different disciplines in science and engineering, including physics, electrical engineering, mathematics, and computing. It will offer a comprehensive view of the ongoing efforts and future prospects in the green energy transition, with a focus on fostering dialogue and collaboration among professionals from various fields.

• Nylund, Inger-Emma; Kontis, Paraskevas; hatzoglou, constantinos & Svensson, Ann Mari (2023). Characterization of grain boundaries in LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 by atom probe tomography and transmission electron microscopy. Full text in Research Archive
• Norby, Truls (2023). Nomenclature and transport of defects in surface protonics. Full text in Research Archive
• Stadlerova, Sarka & Schütz, Peter (2023). Designing the hydrogen supply chain in Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Stadlerova, Sarka & Schütz, Peter (2023). Multi-period facility location problem with capacity adjustments under uncertainty. Full text in Research Archive
• Nylund, Inger-Emma; Malmer, Mika Serna; Langli, Helene Lillevestre & Svensson, Ann Mari (2023). Stabilizing LiNi0.5-xMn1.5+xO4 by using a Phosphonium-based Ionic Liquid as Electrolyte. Full text in Research Archive
• Espegren, Kari Aamodt (2023). Avkarbonisering av tungtransport i Norge. Hva er status på utslipp i transportsektoren, og hvilke teknologier må på banen for å nå nullutslipp? Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Renewable Energy / Water Electrolysis: Systems Lessons Learned and Way Forward. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). R&D on Battery and Hydrogen Technology for Zero Emission Transport Applications. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Zero Emission Transport. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). MoZEES Maritime Case Study- Hydrogen-driven High Speed Passenger Ferries. Full text in Research Archive
• Jamma, Mustapha & Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Control and Energy Management of Battery-PEM Fuel Cell Hybrid Power System for Domestic Ferry Applications. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Nytt fra forskningsfronten. Full text in Research Archive
• Holm, Thomas; Hancke, Ragnhild; Bujlo, Piotr & Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). High-Pressure PEM water electrolyser performance. Full text in Research Archive
• Vie, Preben Joakim Svela; Wind, Julia & Lian, Torleif (2023). Kan brukte litium-ion-batterier fra elbiler brukes om igjen? Teknisk Ukeblad. ISSN 0040-2354. Full text in Research Archive
• Wind, Julia & Vie, Preben Joakim Svela (2023). Økt forståelse av sikkerheten til maritime Li-ion batterier. Skipsrevyen. ISSN 0800-2282. 12. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). MoZEES presentation. Full text in Research Archive
• Denonville, Christelle; Sunde, Tor Olav Løveng & Reksten, Anita (2023). Recent developments on catalyst and microporous layer development, and high temperature PEM electrolysis at SINTEF in Oslo. Full text in Research Archive
• Svensson, Ann Mari & Normann, Ben David (2023). Batteri og batterifabrikker i Norge. [Internet]. https://www.ntnu.no/nyans. Full text in Research Archive
• Bujlo, Piotr; Holm, Thomas; Hancke, Ragnhild & Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Experimental Set Up for PEM Fuel Cell Testing and Monitoring. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein; Helgesen, Geir & Hansen, Per Morten (2023). Modeling of Hydrogen Refueling Systems for Maritime Applications. Full text in Research Archive
• Rogstad, Daniel Tevik; Nylund, Inger-Emma; Malmer, Mika Serna; Langli, Helene Lillevestre & Svensson, Ann Mari (2023). Phosphonium-Based Ionic Liquid Electrolyte in Combination with Silicon Anodes and LiNi0.5-xMn1.5+xO4 Cathodes for Lithium Ion Batteries. Full text in Research Archive
• Martin, Jonas (2023). Green hydrogen and synthetic electrofuels for trucking, shipping, and aviation - plenary talk. Full text in Research Archive
• Martin, Jonas (2023). Green hydrogen and synthetic electrofuels for trucking, shipping, and aviation. Full text in Research Archive
• Martin, Jonas (2023). Renewable hydrogen and synthetic electrofuels for hard-to-abate transport sectors. Full text in Research Archive
• Martin, Jonas (2023). Green hydrogen and synthetic electrofuels for trucking, shipping, and aviation. Full text in Research Archive
• Sunde, Tor Olav Løveng (2023). High-performance catalysts. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Omstilling av tungtransport på land - Er det mulig å nå utslippsmål med løsninger basert på batterier og hydrogen? Full text in Research Archive
• Jamma, Mustapha; Bujlo, Piotr & Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Control and Power Management of Battery-PEM Fuel Cell Hybrid Power System for Marine Propulsion Systems. Full text in Research Archive
• Rogstad, Daniel Tevik; Nylund, Inger-Emma; Malmer, Mika Serna; Langli, Helene Lillevestre & Svensson, Ann Mari (2023). Performance of Silicon Anodes and LiNi0.5-xMn1.5+xO4 Cathodes in Ionic Liquid Electrolytes. Full text in Research Archive
• Ulleberg, Øystein (2023). Hydrogen og brenselsceller for maritime anvendelse. Full text in Research Archive
• Figenbaum, Erik (2023). Discussion on the electric vehicle development in Norway as input to UK policy development. Full text in Research Archive
• Espegren, Kari Aamodt (2023). Hvordan nå nullutslipp i tranport? Full text in Research Archive
• Figenbaum, Erik & Hovi, Inger Beate (2023). Elektrifisering av transport. Full text in Research Archive
• Figenbaum, Erik (2023). The policy process behind Norway’s BEVolution. Full text in Research Archive
• Espegren, Kari Aamodt & Rosenberg, Eva (2022). Decarbonising road transport. Insight from linking of transport and energy system models. Full text in Research Archive
• Svensson, Ann Mari (2022). Relevant battery technologies, applications/potential and implications for education. Full text in Research Archive
• Svensson, Ann Mari (2022). The Potential for new Electrolyte Salts for improved Safety and Performance of Li-ion Batteries. Full text in Research Archive
• Ellingsen, Linda Ager-Wick; Thorne, Rebecca Jayne & Sundvor, Ingrid (2025). The end of the ICE age? - Life cycle assessment of diesel, fuel cell, and battery electric heavy-duty freight vehicles. Transportøkonomisk institutt . ISSN 9788248023500. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study compares the environmental performance of diesel, fuel cell, and battery electric powertrains for regional trucks with trailers and long-haul tractors with semi-trailers. Using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method, the environmental impacts were evaluated across five categories, covering the entire life cycle—from cradle to grave—including both vehicle equipment and energy carriers. The results show that no single powertrain is superior across all impact categories. The electric vehicles had lower impacts in two categories, including climate change, whereas the diesel vehicles performed better than both electric powertrains in three of the five categories. That said, climate change mitigation remains the primary driver for electrification. Although both electric powertrain types exhibited similar environmental profiles, notable differences were found between them. Given the rapid pace of technological advancements, regular updates to the assessment will be necessary to reflect the latest developments and help stakeholders identify effective strategies for enhancing environmental performance as these technologies evolve.

• Pinchasik, Daniel Ruben; Figenbaum, Erik; Karlsson, Hampus & Sæther, Simen Rostad (2024). Framskritt og fremtidsutsikter for innfasing av el-lastebiler i Norge - Erfaringer, utviklingstrekk, barrierer og behov. Transportøkonomisk institutt . ISSN 9788248022060. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  For å redusere utslippene fra tungtransport har Norge stort fokus på innfasing av ny teknologi, med et økende antall batteri-elektriske og biogasslastebiler. Denne rapporten gir en oppdatert oppsummering av erfarin¬ger, barrierer, drivere og læringspunkter for videre teknologiomstilling mht. batteri-elektriske lastebiler. Disse har størst fokus i markedet, men også lavere markeds- og teknologimodenhet enn gasskjøretøy og flere og større utfordringer framover. De siste årene har batteri-elektriske lastebiler gjort store framskritt på rekkevidde, teknologi og modellutvalg. Priser har gått noe ned, men forblir høye pga. ytelsesforbedringene. Investeringsstøtte, anbudskrav, bompengefordeler og tiltak for ladeutbygging har vært svært viktige for innfasingen, som spesielt har skjedd gjennom store aktører. Framover er det imidlertid et stort behov for ytterlige virkemidler, hvor økt forutsigbarhet, langsik¬tighet, bedre lønnsomhet og helhetlig politikkutvikling er kritisk. Dette gjelder i alle ledd, fra investeringsstøtte til strøm- og nettilgang, bompengefordeler, anbuds-utlysninger, teknologivalg og kontrakter. Kritisk er også at politikken utformes slik at også mindre transportører kan omstille, samtidig som flere viktige konkurransehensyn ivaretas.

• Stadlerova, Sarka; Schütz, Peter & Tomasgard, Asgeir (2023). Multi-period facility location problems with capacity expansion: Locating hydrogen production in Norway. Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet. ISSN 9788232673254. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  According to the Paris Agreement on climate change, CO2 emissions must be decreased by 40% towards 2030. Decarbonization of the transportation sector is a crucial step to meet the emission reduction targets in the Paris Agreement. Hydrogen is considered a promising low-emission fuel alternative in the transportation sector. However, low experience with hydrogen and limited availability are the main challenges when introducing hydrogen as a low-emission fuel in the transportation sector. Hence, designing the hydrogen production infrastructure and providing a reliable hydrogen supply is essential to encourage potential customers to switch from fossil fuels to hydrogen. This thesis formulates optimization models and develops efficient solution methods to solve the problem of designing hydrogen production infrastructure in Norway. The papers in this thesis contribute to the state-of-the-art on deterministic and stochastic multi-period facility location problems with capacity expansion. To accurately represent the costs of hydrogen production, we consider specific aspects of hydrogen production technologies in our mathematical models. These aspects include economies of scale in investment, capacity-dependent short-term production costs, and considerations of minimum production requirements. Further, we present solution methods for deterministic as well as stochastic formulations based on Lagrangian relaxation. Furthermore, we provide managerial insight into the cost analysis of hydrogen production in Norway. This thesis consists of four research papers. In Paper I, we formulate and solve the problem of locating hydrogen production facilities in Norway considering deterministic demand. In Paper II, we present a solution method based on Lagrangian relaxation for the problem introduced in Paper I. In the last two papers, future demand is considered an uncertain parameter. In Paper III, we use sample average approximation to solve the problem, while in Paper IV, a solution method based on Lagrangian relaxation is developed.

• Ghadbane, Aroune; McCay, Katie; Seland, Frode & Borello, Domenico (2023). Accelerated Stress Testing and Performance Evaluation of Carbon-Coated Aluminum Bipolar Plates for Lightweight Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The ever-growing global demand for clean and sustainable energy sources has sparked considerable interest in the development of fuel cell technologies. PEMFCs have gained widespread popularity due to their versatile applications, from stationary applications to being a promising alternative to the internal combustion engine. PEMFC converts hydrogen and oxygen to electricity, heat, and water and will significantly accelerate the transition into a hydrogen-based economy. The bipolar plate is an essential element of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell, accounting for 60\% of the overall weight and around 30% of the total cost. Metallic bipolar plates such as stainless steel are popular thanks to their high conductivity. However, the biggest challenge facing PEMFCs in automotive applications is their weight. In this work, the performance of carbon-coated aluminum bipolar plates as a lightweight alternative to stainless steel is investigated under accelerated stress test conditions. The accelerated stress test designed for this work incorporates load cycling in wet and dry conditions and includes some MEA stress mitigation techniques. In-situ electrochemical tests, voltage readings, scanning electron microscopy, and ex-situ interfacial contact resistance were used. The aim was to examine the deterioration of the BPPs and MEA to validate the AST. Results showed an increase in the ohmic losses after 1250 cycles in dry/wet conditions. Interfacial contact resistance measurements demonstrated a slight increase in the anode bipolar plates, while the cathode remained unchanged. SEM showed the wearing of the coating mainly on the lands of the anode bipolar plates, while EDS was used to confirm the formation of an oxide later in the same areas. No trace metal contamination was recorded in MEA and GDLs. However, 50 \% of the electrochemically active surface was lost. This indicates that combining the load and hygrothermal cycling increases the degradation of the catalyst later. Further work should focus on testing Aluminium bipolar plates with different coatings under wet/dry cycling and constant load. This would alleviate the MEA degradation and allow for more cycles before the failure of the cell.

• Figenbaum, Erik (2023). Norway (kapittel i IEA rapport om global status for elbiler). International Energy Agency (IEA). Full text in Research Archive
• Pinchasik, Daniel Ruben; Figenbaum, Erik & Hovi, Inger Beate (2022). User experiences from the first series produced battery-electric trucks. Interviews in 2021 with the first Norwegian users. Transportøkonomisk institutt . ISSN 9788248019640. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  While battery-electric passenger cars now make up the majority of new car sales in Norway and electric vans are quickly gaining market share, the electrification of truck transport is still in an earlier phase. After the first series-produced battery-electric trucks were introduced on the Norwegian market in June 2020, their adoption has accelerated, amounting to 75 trucks in August 2021 and 231 by August 2022. This report synthesizes the first relevant user experiences that may influence further vehicle adoption, based on interviews performed up to the summer of 2021. Feedback indicates that the adoption of electric trucks has largely been strategic and affected by (previously limited) model availability. With some adjustments in operations, much of local and regional transport can be operated with existing battery-electric vehicle technology. User experiences have largely been positive, with some exceptions and particular improvement areas. Efficient operation and larger-scale adoption requires access to fast chargers, range improvements, towbars, and stable, predictable and longer-term framework conditions.

View all works in NVA